Hearing On Georgia in US House of Representatives, 1926

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
HEARINGS
BEFORE THE
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
SIXTY-NINTH CONGRESS
FIRST SESSION ON
H. J. Res. 195
PROVIDING FOR THE APPOINTMENT OF A DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE TO THE NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
APRIL 1 AND 2, 1926
STATEMENTS OF
Mr. JOHtN A. STEWART, New York City Mr. VASILI D. DUMBADZE, New York City Maj. HENRY G. OPDYCKE, New York City
WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT HINTING OFFICE

9;1S3 19' r
COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS

HOUSE SIXTY-NINTH OF REPRESENTATIVES CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION
STEPIIEN 0. PORTER, Pennsylvania, Chairman HENRY W. TEMPLE, Penusylvannia. JAMES T. BEG. Ohio. J. CHARLES LINTIICUM, Mfaryhnd. CHARLES M. STED.MAN, North Carolin.i
THEODORE E. BURTON, Ohio. BENJAMIN 1, FAIIICIIIL.) New York.

HAMILTON FISIi, JR., NEw Yrk.
TOM CONNALLY, Texts.

I. WALTON MOORE, Virgin. MARTIN I. I)AVEY, Ohio. D.AVID J. O'CONNELL, Nev York. S. 1). Mcl'EYNOLDS, Tennessae. CIIAILES 0. EDWARDS, uc:g:.
CYRENUtS COLE, Iowa.

WILLIAM N. VAILE, Colcra~lo.
E)GAR C. ELLIS, 'Mi -ouri.

MORTON 1. IIUILL, Illinois. JOSEI1l W. MARTIN, J.., Mas.idihsttt;. CHA ILES A. EATON, Nr'.v itJvrsky. HENRY A. COOPER, Wisccnzin. EMU NI!
F. E.ps, Clerk

lOUSE oF REPRESENTATIVES, COMMIriEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS,
Thursday, April 1, 1926. The committee this day met, Hon. Stephen G. Porter (chairman) presiding. The CHARMAN. The committee will be in order. This meeting has been calle(l for the consi(leration of the joint resolution (H.6. Res. 1'J5) introduced by the gentleman from Virginia, Mr. Moore. Mr. MoORE of Virginia. rrhe resolution is very simple. It only assumes the possibility that the President may wish to appoint a representative to the Government of the Republic of Georgia. Mr. Stewart, of New York City, is here to make the first statement. (T1'he resolution referred to is as follows:)
JOINT IESOI.UTION 'ro fling for the appointraint of . dil(natic rtpt'-entattive to tle Natloal Ittjubie of GcoIgJht Whereas the Kilngdom of Geor;4ia for mnzy centuries ntintainl itN indeIxndent existence, its racial identity, zaid the integrity of it-; l ng e. in:,itu tiols, al | s aungtillt ti, "lllt :-t r.tlstill t tict '..iOit 2111dfinqlete't ilVitSioti to which It was st.lijected, ad ils tvrritry hs bIet .lice tle fourth c(,itury. and 1(1. oCculded y Ih ople of tMe Chtri.-tial faiiih: 1it4 Whereas the khingldo wa succeeded I- the Nutio,;.I le.liie of Geargi,
which was regularly nll frvzly *staldisied. wil a writteli cenllt A ti,, on
May '21, 1118; azln Whereas the existence of the Il4,iuulic b
ICt'1 g.,iertiliy rtcognlizd by een
the natiuns of the \wrld. ,xcept the Untieu St~attis; ami1 Wh'lerels not iiztalldiitlg stlit txt'i.sS recugiition 1y the ilsIan Governmeit ill E120 that Goverllliat hams si:'e itt' tiI', nil tw uxerc-t.s cu ntrol of the territory of the It( mplid', which hias been ,oillild to trallft its gut erttztentuiltl activities 11ll1 Tillis, rlld thelln froi uatun, to lFraitee, wiiere
it., offie is now cind : lldt| Whw'o it i. the r. of V 44nzs., titlt lh(. Gottami(.t of i:e 1litited hingr..: Sinitts siuild expre-. its dli-:t!,roval 4f th( unw1varrant (1 atetion of tit htissini Gioverntilt k111 its syttqlathy with the t tjOiF cif 't tIjuibhic 'Hter'tore lk it Ik' olrcd by th" SCt,.f,' Ot',! the iounti'e (,[ ) prt'sr''atotlwc-s of tile Unitcd Slics of t r %l I- 'jt. ('oevi'f . i' lt pri vikPn siihll l b mald.b by 11 law for defrayig t he -x ,n-o it.ieb. to tilt :yliihwent of a1 dilIttat it representative, to the Nai ,e al Republic of G(eurg".ia wltinevr the l'rc.idnt shall dc i it exjiediettt to inake sielt alqnmtttilcnt.
STATEMENT OF JOHN A. STEWART, 1EW YOSK CITY Nfr. F[it. What is Aor.
M'. STrFwAN'. I
,,isitez. ?
of tiLe Aiini,,mle ('o. and president
:1111a director
of the qtewart-larmoit ('o. -ir. 1Fimr. What is the liine,- of the two
companies?
Af'. G. Collier.
Tih:w.president of the lis:t cotlitniiy is MI'. Barron Te
-NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. Fisir. Is that an advertising business? Mr. STEAR T. No; it makes dry ammonia and ammonia products in a factory at Biuffalo and other places. I am also president of a company, which operates hand and agriculfarm and development tural enterprises, etc. I am also president of the Stewart-Lurmon Co.. which is a land company. Mr. Fisn. Operating where? Mr. S'rz.W.RT. In .ew York and the South. I. with lay brother James, am the eastern agent of the Ajax Iron Co.. of which my brother Sidney is the secretary, treasurer, and nanagi ng director. what Mr.Coormn. 'hat company'makes 'r. STEWART. It makes gas en,_ines and oil-machinery products. It has been firmiv'established which are shipped all over the word. in the business as a reputable company for 50 years.. "My brother James and I were agents of the Pennsylvania Turn-Buckle Co., of which my brother was the head and is'sill actively interested as a director, which has a capital of a half million dollsris. Mr. Coorrni. I asked you what your business is. not the director's. Mr. SITWART. I am alco chairinan of the board of governors of Washington Sulgrave Institution. Mr. Frsir. You are not a lawyer? Mr. STEWA.T. I am not a practicim, lawyer. although I prepar(od eight years for a course in international law in Ileidelburg University befor, enteriilv the office of Evarts. Southunayd & Choate as a student clerk. My profession has been in journalism, inwhich I have been partner in two daily papers and one magazine: arid owner of one magazine. I am chairman of the executive committee of Washintrton-Lafavette Institution, anti chairman of the board of the Institute of Pictorial Education. I am chairman of the board of tile American Society; president of the International League of Highway llrovements: ilelulber of the executive committee of the International Institute of Efficiency; on the executive colmittee and chairman or .active mnieiior (if 52 different or'2,;nizations. I hope that qualifies me. Mr. ('ooiri;. It was 1lnt personal qualification: it was the name of
th, lusincss. Yoi said somiothini,, albou an iron and all oil company.
Mr. STrEwA.rr. The Ajax Iron Works. Mr. Coorlrl. What is that ? Mr. STrEW.RT. It makes drilling maplines. Cnlils, and things of that kind. Mi'. Fisni. I wanted to find out whether von were a lawyer aInd whether vol represented this organization ? MV. S'I:wMIT. Ye;: I do representt an organization, as chairman of a speial colillittee of the Caucasian Society, whi'h is intereted in Georgia. Mr. IsIt. A',. volt a Georgian ?
Mr. Si'. .MIr. ('oolrrE. I I1i1 not: G(eor'ia is in -oitlieastern E'uro)pe. Where is the Caiieisian Society lo-ated and what located in tlhe "ity of New York. It was orIt i., Ienry Lne Wilson. anibas-
is it
,1i,. STEWART.
about a year and a half ao by sador to Mexico at one time.
ganized
Mr. BEGO. What do you mean by that? Mr. STEWART. It is g;vrned precisely as America is. It has a president and cabinet. It I as a constituent'assembly elected by the people and a cabinet aplpointed by the president, the president being elected by the people. The form of governent is almost precisely like that of the united States. Mr. BIrn',. It is an independent republic? Mr. Sa' rwAmn'. Estabisl1ed as an independent republic.
Mr. Fist,. Is it a fact that this Republic of Georgia is a part of the Soviet union? M'. STLW.Ir. It is not. The CHMAn.x. It woiidte a much more orderly procedure if the witness were allowed to present his side of the case and then
Mr. COOrR. Is lie the one who had trouble during the Carranza administration? Mr. STEWART. Yes. I think Mr. Wilson was the proponent of th9 United States side of that question. He has been in the diplomatic service for many years. Mr. Barron G. Collier is vice presi dent and also the consul general under appointment by the Georgian Government, which functions in Paris, and has for the last year under asylum of the very generous French Government. lhe membership of the society is representative, and I think niany of the names which are enrolled in that society are well known-to the gentlemen about this table. Mr. HuLL. How large a group? Mr. S1EWART. It is a group now of several hundred. Mr. O'CONNELL. Mr. Collier is in it? Mr. STEWAMT. He is vice president. Mr. Buco. What is the form of government in Georgia? Mr. STEwAirr..It is a democratic republic.
even a nanue, and vet the picop)le of (Georl'gia stand practically alone in an acconiujlishnlient Which finds oliV onie jairalel killing the nations of the world. The history of .eorgia iitedates the invasion of the Tralls-aucas hrilAlxander. 1,(0 years lkfoire ('irist ; iil stCe~sivel' after hxandi r' thi's little nti ll)i Wiis iniltiated by the Rotiniiin, liv the Arals. bv tile Mongols-. hr lie T'artaris. liv the I'er.il.liv, the '1iirts.. and. iinallv. i%the R&.siais. I lith Course16O b% o1f 2.00 years this Ieolple has fought (ov-er 125 wars. It is a wealthy iliI. eIt-, hills: and ralle'vs colitai ll practicallv every nuiileral that is foudil in ilit' iled Stites. 'iue Trais-Caujasial Is-tilus Aallds hir't ill it (liat!\\lity of oil Iliat lih.- ai'o'iliid Baltu and inl north
l.iaawaiting" exploilt i It h. Iiae'irnl lla is dello,lti o1' col aid lilwstoie. ift. ('o ti.l. ]Exlloitantio oi s14%--loieiit Mr. Fxloilat iollil 1l xiwxru. tr , seii't, f flit' w orl. It l ha. iluid'r lithe atllthuritv of iP'nofe.-.or , ,F:en(iii.\\he u a aimiber lii oftlile ( bitairio Vater ' twer ("'ru iiiiio.h. a1horMlqnver ili itsmlilta :ii a qn .oxi tiiu 120.0ii4a10'. tutll i hit'it il,tili.t' ill it,. li hill(lC
answer questions When lie has coiiil)leted hi. statement. Proceed ail state Vour case in your own war. 'r. STEWART. Mi'. ('hltirnian and gentleiien of the conitiitee. outside of eastern EurolO, and )articilarly among thie nations of this hemisphere. Georgia is but little knllown. To 111(.st of us it is not
NATIONAL REPUBLIC 0'
GEORGIA
tains are manganese, gold, silver, steel, copper, iron, etc., the nations of the world have regarded it as a fair prey for exploitation under force of arms. Mr. O'Co..EL,L. It is used there in the worst sense. Mr. STEWART. Yes. But despite the fact that, year after year, this people has been decimated by the onslaughts of predatory forces, and despite the fact that in the long war between Persia and the Turks, on the one side, and Georgia on the other, during which two out of every three fighting men and women were killed, the Georgians have maintained their racial identity and their institutions; they have preserved their language and their hold upon the soil which God gave them. There is no other nation on earth that has so glorious a history as the Georgians. Mr. HtuL.L,. How numerous is the population? Mr. STEWAUT. 'heir population to-day is in the neighborhood of 3,000,000, which is almost entirely a native population. Just think of it! A reputable statistician, a man who understands insurance computation, has computed that in the course of 2,000 years the Georgians have lost in battle, fighting to maintain their land, something like 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 of their people; yet there they are to-day, where the Creator planted them. Some 1,700 years ago they adoe)ted Christianity, and for 1,700 years they have "fought to maintain that Christianity. In the fourtli century, under the direction of Constantine the Great, the Bible was translated into the vernacular, having its origin in the Zendish, which is a member of the Sanserit family of languages. To-day, standing over against Russia, with its I6 per cent of illiteracy, stands little Georgia, with 96 per cent of litericy. It has a long-established literature; it has an ancient art. It has within its population soome of the greatest scholars of the worli. There is no land that. facing such conditions as Georgiza has faced, has maintained! itself so well against vastly superior forces. It is significant, Mr. Chairman, that even the ('zars of Russia have had to treat with these people as friends and equals. Under Cathterine the Great a ,onveition of amity an friendship was entered into betveeit Ru.ssia anil the (iorgian kingdom, a treaty afterwards incontinently viohited bY that s.mue Rlluusia, in nutir-A (lte course when oiu't,1li(.6l b" l~lV-jzt IItEu)q . .\tt,,r15 a vive royalty was granted. It is signilicant thai. )will_, to the inherent honesty of these 1)eopl,1. their im-,'wervilJi integrity, thirf'i l)Ilb)itv, their collrage. and their great intelligence, tile 'z urs. suspicious of their own people. always 0urouuileI theit-'el'es h~ (;colglans. Let me illiu.trate somiethi., of the natural integrity" of the Georgianl people. I have in New York a friend wIlE) in the ,le (.oure of )l~isi-.s vis t(,d (;or,,ia .i10 remit . I t chre for. inm lnY 1ontlis. Ile told e that o(e Iiin.. he1 hi'hll-.ell :1 l:'.,e ba.-cet of ras.hherries from a pea.-atit (1-i latli ,t, on the patfoim of a railroad trs nationn: wtlit into Ile var. to t'tlity the swket. uah while there heard I sollie rather 14 talki., oihtsI. an1 ll,' heard illn ln'isi his nta me uncutioliel aitI we.nt olit and fotuld thol,, it giril arguing with it soldier who was on v.1.1r4I. lh .alleI the ;ohd~iet. who hail been in Ailltica. at14 si:d, " hat is the lliatter ' l)i'l I Il lrpay the h girl f'" The sol:]ivr rjlie l. "' Qlli,- Ihe 'onliit ry: she ."li ti at X11'o
overpaid her five times and she wants to give you back your change; and insists on it." This gentleman said, that even coming from America, which is supposed to be reasonably honest, he was deeply impressed with such treatment at the hands of a girl of her classand being an American he gave her not only. that which he had paid her originally but considerably more besides. Through the ages the Georgians have been noted for their honesty, also for their courtesy, and I have been told by people who have visited there that there is no more charmingly hospitable people on earth than the Georgians. It is a part of the Georgian social creed that when one has a guest he must defend the integrity of that guest and safegunard him even with his own life. Now, what made Georgia the target of surrounding nations, the Persians and the Turks, is because Georgia was a Christian nation; hence she has had to defend her Christianity through the deaths of hundreds of thousands of her people. She stands in this regard on a parity with the Armenians, for her Christianity dates back almost to the time when the Armenians accepted Christianity. Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, it America has any reputation at all in the world, if it. have any reason for pluming itself upon its reputation, it is because always America has been sympathetic with little peoples struggling to maintain their racial integrity and their independence. 6eorgia stands precisely where America stood in 1776. Perhaps it was meant by God that little nations should have no standing in the world; perhaps it. meant was that little peoples ever should be exploited by greater peoples who have the force to carry out such ruthless exploitation as the Russians have been doing in Georgia for the last four years. Georgia gained her independence. She established a democratic republican form of government. She was included arbitrarily by the soviet government as one of the soviet States, but that was entirely without. her violation-she had no voice in the matter-there was no method by which that act could have been stopped. Obviously, a nation like Russia, has a right to wr-ite into her constitution anything she pleases, even though it arbitrarily includes an implied authority over neighboring States. But also'in the Russian constitution there is included the recognition of the independence of Georgia; and the declaration is therein made-and we have the text with usthat. Georgia has the right to withdraw from the soviet union, a union into which she never entered. It is also stated therein that she hins time absolute right of independence. And yet after this convenition, or, rather, after this constitution was written, after these statements were made, the Bolshevist government of Soviet Russia, true to form, hurled a red army into Georgia and took temporary possession of her; but shortly after, when the Georgians had ralfiedl their forces, the first red inva ders were driven out. It is the splendid history of this little country that the Russians under the Czars, a more powerful entity than that of the bolsheviki, were never able wholly ioconquer the Georgians, who defendefl themselves in their mountain fastnesses. The Russians have acknowledged that the only way they could have taken possession of Georgia was by waiting until tihe IPersians and the Turks had so weakened the fighting
forces of Georgia that the Georgians did not have the strength to aqist; and they accepted the situation as best they could. Georgia has no claim to make upon the sympathies of the American people except that claim of sympathy which America has always accorded to a. Christian people struggling for independence. She recognizes the fact that it is only owing to the kindly generosity of the French people that she is permitted through her Government to function in the city of Paris as Belgium functioned on French soil when the Germans were in possession of Belgium. It is by no means unprecedented in the history of nations that a rightful government representing a people who are the rightful owners of a soil has been obliged to find refuge in a neighboring State. Mr. BF o. My first question will answer whether I can ask another one. Are you giving a prepared statement or talking offhand? Mr. STEWART. I am talking extemporaneously. Mr. BFO. The thing that I would like to hear discussed is why the legislative should undertake to instruct the Executive. As I understand procedure in this country, it is wholly within the Executive to recognize it or withhold. I do not care anything about the history of Georgia until I am convinced that tile Executive is not doing his duty. The CIARAN,1A.. That is the crux of the entire matter, but I would rather have him make his statement tban to interject it in time middle of his statement. Mr. VAILE. I hope the gentleman will not be debarred from continuing the history of Georgia. Mr. By(ao. Thatis the point that is of value to me. The CHAI .MAN. Let Us defer that until lie has com)letecd his statement. Mr. O'CoxriiL. I think the witness is building up his case successfully. Mr. VAILE. This is one of the most interesting statements I have heard in a long time. M'. O'COVxELL. It is. Mr. Fisir. I agree that he should finish without interruption. I (to not agree at all with the statements lie has made to the committee, and I will show later on from authorities that, quite to the contrary, this State of (Georgia has been incorporated into the Russial Ei 1 pire since 1801 and has been under the Russian Empire ( 120 years and has been a part of the Socialist Union for four or five years and is to-day a part. I ait willing for him to continue. fMr. S'rmtwarr. I (o not agree that is the fact. Mr. LINTiIICUM. What is the exact location of Georgia and the number of square miles of its area? Mrt'. ST:WAwT. Georgia lies between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. It is hemmed in by a mountain range north and south. Mr. ('ouptra. The southeastern l)art of Europe. Mr. STi.Wiur. It is antl was the main highway for many centuries between Asia and Europe. 3Mr. LIxrimicu.NM. What is the area? Mr. S'FwIArr. The area is about 48,4100 square miles, but associated with Georgia are two other republics, Azerbaidjan and North
Caucasia-the combined area is about 150,000 square miles. Total population, 14,000,000. Mr. CooPER. That is not Georgia alone. That includes also Azer. baidjan and Armenia. Mr. STEWART. Yes. I say that on the isthmus are these three countries. Mr. COOPER. Are you asking that the United States recognize Armenia and Azerbaidjan? Mr. STEWART. Not under this resolution. ir. COOPER. Then there are not 14,000,000 people concerned het6.
,Mr.STEWART.
Mr. EATON. How many governments have already recognized the government of Georgia? Mr. STEWART. Nearly every nation on earth except the United States of America. Mr. FAIRCHILD. The Russians? Mr. O'CoNNELLL. Have they ministers there as well? Mr. STEWART. They have. MJr. FISH. The government he is talking about is not in the country he is talking about; it is in Paris. Mr. STEWART. I explained that. Mr. Fisit. It did not convey the impression to the listener that those countries had ministers in Paris. Anyone would have thought from the statement that they had ministers in Georgia. Mr. CooPFR. Ile did not say that until Mr. Fish brought that out. Mr. STEWART. I have not had opportunity. The CHAIRMA. Proceed with your statement. Mrli. STwART. America naturally is not well informed as regards the history of places in eastern Europe, nor have we come very closely into contact with them. Answering the statement or remarks of the gentleman from New York, I will say this, that be their situation what it may be, whether tley be a party to the soviet federation or whether they not be, yet England and France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Japan, Argentine, Chile, Brazil, and Mexico, I believe, have recognized the independence of the Georgian republic. Mr. Fisii. When? '1hey recognized them when they were an independent republic before they were incorporated into the socialist union four or five Years ago. Mr. STEvAwr. 1919, 1920, 1921. Mr. Fish. After the war when they were an independent republic. Mr. SrEWAIIT. But they never have withdrawn that recognition as is discoverable in the French Diplomatic Yearbook, a copy of which we have with us. There is a section given over to Georgia, the Georgian government and diploinatic establishments. Mr. Fisit. What year? Mr. STE.WART. TIs last issue; this last year. Tlie C11AITI AN. Proceed. Mr. STEWART. Let us take one or two precedents in relation to Georgia. The CIFMRMHA-'. Pursue the Paris situation further by stating to the committee definitely and somewhat in detail exactly where the government of the Republic of Georgia is functioning.
-96153-- 26 2
There are 3,000,000 in Georgia.
Mr. STEWART. NO.
Mr. STEWART. The Government of the Republic of Georgia is functioning in the city of Paris. When the second Bolshevik army invaded Georgia and killed 38,000 persons, a majority of those killed being women and children, and noncombatants, the Georgian Government was driven from Tifles to Batoum and from Batoum into France, which had offered an asylum to this Government. The Government functions there as-well as any government ever functioned in a similar condition. Mr. FAIRCHILD. Do I understand that up to the time they were driven out of Georgia Georgia? those countries which recognized them had accredited ministers in .Mr. STEWART. Yes. W hat I intended to say when interrupted was that Georgia's status in Paris is that of every country which had been recognized as independent and hence was akcountry to which in ordinary course ministers are sent. Mr. FAIRCIILD. When they were driven out of Georgia those foreign ministers accredited to Georgia went with them to Paris. Mr. STEWART. Let Doctor Dumbadze answer. This is Doctor Dumbadze who is a, Georgian and represents his Government and has since tile time of the revolution. Mr. Fisir. It is quite interesting that there were foreign representatives of governments accredited to the Georgian Go'ernment in Paris. Is that a, fact? Mr. STEWART. I made no such statement. I am perfectly willing to stand by what I said. Mr. Fisir. I understood that to be your meaning. What do you mean by having representatives of foreign governments at Paris? Mr. STE:WART. I made no such statement. The CHiAIM.AX. I would like tie date when they were drivon out of Georgia STATEMENT OF MR. VASILI D. DUMBADZE, GENERAL DIPlOMATIC AND ECONOMIC REPRESENTATIVE OF THE REPUBLIC OPr GEORGIA Doctor DuMImADZY. The Georgian Government was driven from Georgia, beginning March, 1921, when the bolshevik government to the north and east, and other States-Turkey-to the south, invaded Georgip in violation of Georgia's treaty rights, and our government was conipelled to flee from Georgia. The CHIR .x. tow do they finance this government since they were driven otit? Mr. STEWART. I am glad to answer the gentleman's question, because it gives me opportunity. Mr. O'CoXN-,i.T,. The witness should be permitted to make his very forceful and instructive statement. Mr. STI'WART. 'Mr. Chairmauun, I am waiting for an opportunity to make that statement, and if it does not move the sympathies of the niemnbers of this committee, then I must say the American heart is made of stone. 'I'liese people carried with themi into their exile all the great national tr(-astires of (;corgia, which have possibly a value of half a billion dollars. They are now deposited deep in tie va'tilts of tile French mint. The members of the government, and tho.o
who accompanied them, left behind them all personal property. They took what they hastily could seize and made their exit. For several years, and I give it to you as a fact, those men have supported themselves by the sweat of their brows in honest labor which has been given to them ].- the sympathetic French people. Despite the fact that at hand in their vaults they have treasures of a half a billion dollars, and more. their integrity, their patriotism, their love of their country, their reverence for those works of the past, all have inhibited them'from using one iota of those treasures for funds with which to supIort themselves; and they maintain their government and themselves by day labor, by any work that comes to hand, by translations; two of the most Iarne&I scholars in the world are elgaged in translating documents and making reports on archaeological subjects for wages. They are living without borrowing from their neighbors. Tile Georgians are a homogeneous people. They stunid almost alone among the nations of the world in the fact" that although driven to dire distress by the invasions of their country, they never yet have appealed for help to the world. They never luimve c'me on their knees to America asking for American money to put clothing on their backs and food into their stomachs, although they needed both. That is a record which stands practically unique. Will you not agree with me, in the circumstances of our rlationshil, with little peoples and big peoples during the last 10 distressful years, that it isa very remarkable thing that this people, who nie-d money and supplies of every kind. have neither tried to borrow or have own begged from us. Oi the contrary, they have stood omi th ,ir their poverty. Is not feet. independent, honest, and unashamed ill that a record which should al~lleal to American sympathy? Why, in (God's name, Flhould America, Wi. It a reputal ion throughout the World as being the big brother of nations in dist re.s, turn hei" back oil Georgia when she has a prect'dent in Weiets iild, alld action in soil regard to Greee, when Grece was not in lo:!-se- ioni of her o and when she had a government fiiictioning from llace to ll'mi'e outsile and inside herown territory? Mr. WelNser's resohitioli wu.. inlroa e duced, and it was passed. and % recognized ill measure ti e independonce of the Creeks. We had done that before. I think. although I ilaV 1ot lie righi:. that ti e Ctngess of the Unitedl Statels, ole or othel budy of tIhe Coglress. pwIa.ed re.-olitiion. favorable to Irelanl, and yet frel1nd had no govelimetCli ihtat Nw functioning" yet we lmythy. gave Ireland our s is 4i te r:olutio. s of syapathy vwere passed The ('H.IriMAN. it for tile Irish people, and ik rc:oluition along this liine, alihiiigh it did not pas-, Colgle,.s. a.- 1( cflii; it ljiiC(e the Iloml: Uut hot the
Ni
Smmli e.
Mr. MOOIE of Vi'ginia. This ic olution an(d (lie House resolitiion introduced i"Mr. WAeiber with reference to Greece are almmlo.-t in 1is resolution l)as-e~d the Ilou.-e. It wa.s the thle Nii \vw4i'ds. occasion of 1Vebster's first great speech. Yol said that practically all tle nations of the Worl ave eog_has niot, Juili lnized the indelendene of the Repliblic of Geogili. li its of Course, except ill (Olvtituiti0li. it ta1teiejit whilci it !mi ire-
pudiated. The Government of the United States has declined to recognize Soviet Russia, has it not? Mr. STEWAr. Yes. But Ruesia alse hres definitely recognized the independence of Georgia, May 7, 1920, in common with other nations. Mr. LINTmCUl. I wanted to go into that question about the soviet government giving liberty to the Georgians tp become independent. Mr. STEWART. -MayI read that? This is an extract from the treaty concluded at Moscow May 7, 1920, between the Democratic Republic of Georgia and the Russian Socialistic Soviet Federated Republic, article 1; basing it on the rights of all ,'eoples--proclamation of the Russian Socialistic Federated RepublicL-to freely dispose of themWeyves even up to and including total separation from the state of which they form a part--" Russia recognizes without reservation the independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State, and voluntarily renounces al sovereign rights which b4onged to Russia with respect to the Georgian people and territory." Mr. O'CONNELL. What is the date of thatI Mr. STEWART. May 7,1920. Article 2, basing itself on the principles proclaimed in the first article, Russia pledges herself to renounce all rights to intervene in the affairs of Georgia. Mr. McREYN-OLDS. When did she take charge of Georgia?
Mr.
STEWART.
Mr. VAuI.
In March, 1921, 10 months after that. A scrap of parer?
Mr. STEWART. Yes.
Mr. LIXTmitCUm. Russia recognized that independence and it seemed to be a sop to other nations to recognize Russia. and as soon as some nations did recognize Georgia, she went back and took possession of Georgia, is that right? Mr. STEWAPT. There were emotions and passions which were very decidedly mixed in the Bolshevik mind which impelled such action by the Soviet Government. .fr. ('. N-ALT.Y. In connection with this matter generally, it might be interesting to know that Mr. Little, of -L.nsas, now dead, who :,-rved as consul for the State Department in this area for'some years, made a very interesting speech in the House four years ago about Georgia and the Georgian people. Mr. VAILE. I heard that speech. You might put a copy of that in the hearing. It was a ver:, interesting statement. He was very much in sympathy with th. aspirations of the Georgian people for independence. (See Appendix, No. 18.) The CHAbRAN'. Before you leave the question of recognition, you are familiar with the provisions of the Soviet constitution to permit any State to secede at any time it desires? Mr. STEWAR.T. Yes. The CHM::,rA-. How has the Soviet Government treated Georgia in that respect? Mr. STEWART. Occupation by the Red Army is an answer to your question, Mr. Chairman. Mr. LITIMcusr. Did not Georgia make application for relief under that section that was denied hlt'i?
but if they do they will shoot them.

Mr. OPDYCKE.
Mr. STEWART. I think I am stating the case correctly that Georgia never recognized any right of any Russian Government to interfere with her independence. Mr. CoNXNALJ.Y. Rtissia gives them a constitutional right to secede,
Mr. STEWART. res; that is it. Mr. Dunmbadze says that under this act, Georgia served pro forma notice on the Soviet Government. granted by the Soviet Government, for Georgia to be released from tinder the'Soviet Government. G4 orgia (lid make application under
In answer to that question, regarding that privilege
that.
Mr. CONNALY. When?
Mr. OPDYCKE,. WVithin a year and a half, ii 19"23 and 1924, they made such application, and'in both instances it wa:i denied them. Mr. STEWART. Mr. Vasili D. DIumbadze is the. representative of the Georgian Government. I rather despair that you would credit the story which I could tell you of Doctor l)uubailze's sacrifices in the cause of liberty of his native (icorgia. Four times lie was captured bv the Bolshevik. Four times lie was condemned to death. His father, 76 years of age, and the head of the religious establishment of the Georgian Republic. was placed against a stone wall and 19 bullets were put into him. His uncle was captured; he went against a stone -wall and was killed. Even in free America, far removed from. the centers of disturbance in eastern Europe, one effort which nearly succeeded was made upon that Georgian repre. sentative's life. ie carries in his body to-day 3 inches of a knife blade which the surgeons have not dared to cut out and have told him to let it lie there because his life was more safe with the blade in him than out. He has been betrayed in America four times by men who have sought his confidence when he had responded in his generous nature to their appeaLs. They have tried once to kill him and twice to ruin him; three times efforts have been made to deport him front the United States of America. Christian America, sympathetic, kindly America, simply because he stood as a barrier between his country and her exploitation by wicked men. If suffering, if honesty, if patriotism, if untold sacrifices in life, in treasure, are not an appeal to the sympathetic heart of America; if there is on earth a Christian nation such as the Georgian nation is that can not succesfullv make an appeal to the sympathetic American people, expressed. through their representatives in Congress in the city of Washington, let us seek to revise the o inion which the word at large in the person of its peasantry ana plain people have of the people of the United States. I know through my own personal knowledge that when Theodore Roosevelt was President of the United states and had established a reputation as champion of the plain people of the world, in almost every peasant hut of Europe there was his picture, a cut from some newspaper or a photograph sent over by some relative living in America. I do know that' when Woodrow Wilson was in Paris everywhere the plain people of Europe responded to the hope--such a hope as had been held long centuries within the European heart-that here was a man who finally would give liberty to the world. America never has been wont to turn her back upon an appeal of Georgia's
kind. Millions and tens of millions and hundreds of millions of dollars have been poured out from the pockets of our people and from the Treasury of the United States in the relief of distress, and we never have asked any questions about race, religion, or previous condition of servitude. 'There is no appeal which can be made, and I frankly grant it, based absolutely on the precedents of international law, and, perhaps, the specific practices of the United States Government in regard to its relation to people like the Georgian people. But is there not here a case which seems to have in it a peculiar and a particular reason why we should place Georgia in a category by herself and why we should not consider her strictly from a legalistic point of view! Georgia appeals to me as a Christian peopl who fought for Christianity and suffered for Christianity an( allowed themselves to be killedby thousands upon the field of battle in order to preserve the religion of Christ which they had adopted. There is one further statement which I can make. Mr. Husband, who was Commissioner General of Immigration, now Second Assistant Secretary of Labor, said, and I see no particular reason why anybody should refrain from quoting him, that he had visited G'eorgia and that he had staved there relatively a long time amongst the people; he had traveled fnom town to town through the country, met lhe people in conversation and or. social occasions, had been treated with hospitality which found no parallel outside of his own native land: and Mr. Husband said jokingly to me one day, "If I were exiled from my native country, I should seek an asylum in Georgia." le added, "Nowhere on earth is there a finer body of men and women." This fine, upstanding body of Christian men and women make an appeal to the people of the United States through their Congress in the city of Washington for some expression of sympathy that will denote to the people of the world that America still stanls as the champion of little people struggling for that liberty which we ourselves gained only in the travail of eight years of war. N,. 'There is an identical resolution in the Senate Mr. O('oN.introduced by Senator Copeland, of New York. ir. STEWAR1T. Yes. The CI.xARM.;N. Before you close, I will ask you two or three questions. Mr. STEWART. If you desire specific and exact information as regards the political and commercial situation of Georgia, Doctor Dumbadze is here to speak with authority and with all the docuilients which go with authority. Mr. BEao. Have you presited this plea to the State Department and been denied ? Mr. STEwAT. If I may be permitted, Mr. Moore visited the State Department. There has'been no denial of the State Department in regard to the introduction of this measure. Ir. BoGo. What is that statement? Mr. SwA 1 rr. There is no denial from the State Department of the policy of the introduction of this resolution. Air. Brco. That is not my question. Has anybody presented a plea for recognition to the proper authorities of the "State Department?
Mr. STEWART. No; for the reason that we thought that under precedents it was quite proper we should seek the passage of this resolution, at least, its introduction in the Congress of the United States. It is not unprecedented. Mr. BEGO. I always supposed that countries wanting recognition went to the executive first. I may be in error. That is my supposition, that any country that wants recognition proceeds though the regular executive channels to receive tlat recognition. If that has not been done, why not-that is my question C Mr. STEWART. Is it absolutely without precedent that a joint resolution or a resolution has been introduced in either House of Congress in regard to a matter of this kind? Mr. BEGo. There may have been resolutions of this kind, but so far as I know, and I have not investigated it, there has never been a resolution of that kind until after the State Department had, to. say the least, postponed a recognition. The CHA RMA.. There is the case of Greece and the case of Argentina. Mr. O'CONNELL. Did anybody representing the Georgian Republic discuss the matter in that connection with the State Department, or not? Mr. STEWART. Mr. V. 1). Dumbadze. Mr. BEoO. What attitude did the State Department take on that? Mr. STEWART. Obviously, very friendly; otherwise, we should not have introduced it here. It is rather embarrassing to discuss in' open session these matters, and for me to discuss them in any way because of conversation I had with them at the State Deaprtment. Mr. BEGo. I (1o not wish to embarra - but I do not see any other door open to me. Perhaps the State department has considered favorably this particular proposition. Mr. STEWART. I am not authorized to speak for the State Department. The latter has been put before the State Department. No %vord has been sa;d in the State Department that militated against the introducti. ,f this resolution. The CHAIRMAN. To clarify this situation, the usual; method of recognition is for the Nation to apply to the Executive, and if he is favorable to recognition he apl)oints a diplomatic representative, and if that diplomatic representative is confirmed by the Senate that amounts to a ratification by the Senate, and then the. House appropriates sufficient mone3? to pay his expenses and salary. It requires the action of the President, the 'Senate, and the House, to recognize a country. There are two or three cases, notably the case of Greece, where the House made the appropriation in advance of action by the Executive; of course, the ordinary way is for the Executive to recognize. Mr. BEo. Is it not a fact that the House can not force nor prevent the Executive from recognizing? We can refuse to pay, but that does not control the recognition, and we can not force it. Is that the truth? The COARMAN.. That is exactly what I said. The Hcuse can not force the President; you must have joint action of the Senote, flouse, and Executive.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA . Mr. EDWARDS. Has this resolution been referred to the State De. partment for report? The CHAIRMAN. NO. Mr. EDWARDS. We have nothing from the State Department before the committee?
propriated in an appropriation bill for the expenses of an ambassador to Cuba before tile ambassador had been appointed, before the Executive had taken action? Air. BFwO. There is nothing to prevent our doing that, but there is nothing to compel the Executive to spend that appropriation if he does not want to. The CHAIRMAN. I have always held the view on these foreign matters that Coiigress has a right, to pass a resolution requesting the President to do certain things. That has been done many times. Mr. COOPER. As I understand the law, not the law but the established practice, a civilized nation before officially recognizing another government, requires that the other government must, t least, be in active control of some portion of the territory over which it claims jurisdiction. Here we have a government that is in Paris, some thousands of miles away from the country which it claims to govern, and it exercises jurisdiction over not one inch of that territory. Now, when we come to the question of recognizing a government that does not govern anything, we come to the very crux of this matter. They could ask us to recognize Armenia Azerbaidjan, any bit of territory in the world, if revolutionists could go to some foreign country and claim there that they are a governmtent controlling territory thousands of miles away. It would continually get us into trouble if that principle is to obtain in recognition of revolutionary governments. Mr. EATON. Do you consider those people in Paris revolutionaries? Mr. COOPER. I do. They are not in control of that Government. Mr. LINTHICUr. I do not take it that this resolution goes that far. This resolution says:
. That provision shall be made by law for defraying the expenses incident to the appointment of a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia vbvever the President shall deem it expedient to make such ap. pointment. Mr. STEWART. The resolution simply is a gesture of sympathy.
The CHAIRMAN. No. Mr. LINTHICUM. Is it not true that only a few years ago we ap-
Mr. CoorER. It is a matter of exceeding importance to this country and to every other country in the world, if the Congress of the United States is in advance to say that it will appropriate money if the Executive shall recognize an alleged government thousands Uf miles distant from the territory which it claims to govern and not one foot of which it can exercise authority ovet. Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Mr. Webster argued that question in the Greek case, and the Turks were in possession of Greece. Mr. COOPER. But Greece was all of the time fighting on her own soil, controlling some portion of her soil, and she had troops in Greece. But there is no war or revolution here. Mr. EDWARDS. They are subdued-driven out.
Admiralty intelligence department, 1904-5; governor of Hong Kong Naval Prison, 1907-08; admiralty war staff, 1910-11; naval attach British Embassy, St. Petersburg, April, 1912, to November, 1917; bead of naval mission to Finland, December, 1918, to June, 1019, etc. A. R. McDonnell, educated St. Paul's School, London. C. B. E. (civil); resident in Russia, 1902-1919; British vice cousul, Baku, south Russia, 19071916. British military forces in Caucasus and north Persia, 1916-1919 (temporary major). Foreign office temporary first division clerk 1919-1923.
Mfr. STEWART. In the first place, Mr. Cooper, recognition has been accorded to the Government of Georgia; the independence of her people has been recognized by every nation on earth except the Americans. Mr. CooPER. The nienshevist government, so called, which was fighting the Bolshevists, had control of Georgia for about two years; then the Armenians and the Turks got into war and the Soviet Government went down and took control over that territory. Mr. STEWART. I think there is a slight misapprehension as to the real facts of the situation, but what I want to say is that every nation except America has recognized the Georgian Government. Tfhe Georgian Government still continues, and her diplomatic status is recognized by England, Germany, and France. Mr. Coo.ER. In what way? How do they recognize it? M'. STEWART. In many ways. I might explain that Georgia is a very wealthy country-trans-Caucasia, the isthmus, within the confines of 150,000 square miles, is the richest country in the world. I know a little something of the wild scramble on the part of men of wealth and high standing, and men of no wealth and low standing, for concessions from Georgia, and they are willing to pay substantial sums for concessions for oil, for iron, coal, etc., to pay hard cash. Despite the fact that the second red army holds the Georgian people in subjection by their presence on their soil, so far as such control as Georgia can exercise over its own people, is exercised. There are several hundred thousand Georgians in exile and in the mountains of Georgia. The mountaineers are the very backbone of Georgia and they have been of every contest for centuries in fighting for liberty. These still are outside of contact with and control by the Bolshevik Government; and they are operating independently and under the leadership of the government in Paris. Ordinarily when you set up against a people of 2,600,000 a force of 150,000,000, there is only one result that is possible-the superior force subjugates the minor force. And yet to an extent that is hardly credible, that Georgian Government in Paris functions as the government of the people of Georgia, although that governing is not expressed in terms of open activities. We must not forget that. Georgia represents a force that has been fighting for centuries and centuries, a people of unexampled hardihood. Mr. COOER. I am after the facts. Mr. STEWART. I am here to answer. Mr. CooprEn. I have taken some pains to look into this matter and have here the official report of the British trades union delegation to Russia in November and December, 1924. The delegates consisted of 10 members of whom 7 were "general council delegates" and 3 were "advisory delegates." Among the advisory delgates were: Harold Grenfell: Retired in 1920 from British Navy with rank of captain.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA George Young. educated at Eton and foreign universities. M. V. 0., diplomatice service (passing in Russian 189-1915). Admiralty Intelligence 19151918. Volunteered in ranks, February, 1918. and commissioned R. M. A., August. Daily News correspondent through German revolution, December, 1918 to August, 1919. Professor of Portuguese, 1919-1922, and examiner in Ottoman law, London University, etc.
The concluding paragraph of this report says:

With respect to the national minorities in Georgia there can be no doubt that all that the present system by which they secure home rule gives the best practical possibility of satisfactorily securing their lives and liberties. Finally, that it is In the Interests of the workers and peasants of Caucasia and of the world that the Inclusion ut the Trans-Caucasian Federation in the Union of Socialist Russia should continue, and that the Caucasus should not again become the scene of rival military occupations and race wars.
This is a long and interesting report, and contains many reproductions of photographs and other pictures. I am not in sympathy with the Soviet GovernmentMr. STEWART (interposing). I am familiar with that report. Mr. CooPER. But as a legislator I have important duties to perform in this matter, as has every other member of this committee. In this report the British delegation tell how Georgia came to be included in the soviet republic, and then they say:
The reception given to the delegates and the numbers that r.marcled in the public processions convinced them that a large proportion of the industrial population of the capital were enthusiastic supporters of the present gov. ernient-
That -was in the capital of Georgia.

The situation In Georgia, t fact, seems to be essentially the same as in Azerbaidjan and Armenia-that Is, a majority of the Industrial workers with a nucleus of Russians are prepared to lay down their lives for the present government.
Mr. O'CONNE L. As administered by Russia. Mr. Coo~en. Yes.

The small minority that remains In opposition are not now prepared, to lay down their lves to overthrow It.
And further:
On March 17, the Georgian Meushevist Government was driven out of Tiflis and obliged to sue for liace, which was arranged by Moscow. The Menshevist Government left for Paris, taking the contents of the treasury with them, and a Soviet Republic was proclaimed in Georgia. In return, Moscow persuaded Angora to return Jiatouni to Georgia, which accordingly suffered little loss of territory. From the foregoing it is clear that the overthrow of the Menshevist Gov. ermnent of Georgia, and the eventual inclusion of that sovereign state in the Union of Soviet Republics was not an unprovoked poll"cal aggression by Moscow. The "protection" of Georgia had become a prize for which world powers were competing so as to secure control of the oil and manganese resources. It had become for Georgia a choice between Turkish or Russian occupation, and the Russians gave them back their full territories and a very full autonomy, which they would not have got from the Turks.
Mr. O'CONNFLJ. Is that a report of the soviet? Mr. VAILE. It speaks for itself.
Mr. CoOPE1R. I wish to answer the question of my friend from New York City as to whether this is a report of the soviet. Mr. O'Co.NxELL. I say, is it? Mr. Coornaz. It is the official report of the British trade union delegation to Russia in 1924. The question for us in considering
it is, does it tell the truth. As Matt Carpenter in a famous case said when a lawyer on the other side sneeringly alluded to one of his itnesses:
It Is the duty of a court to believe the truth even though it come from the lips of a drunken cobbler.
It is the truth we want. Mr. O'Co.0V . I will say to my friend from Wisconsin that I NrN (lid not say it was; I saiJ? is it? Mr. S-rwixvrr. From highest English sources have come Utter repudiation of this report. It was not accepted by the British Goveritment; it was not accepted by the people of Great Britain as statements of unbiased truth. It has not been accepted by labor as a safe criterion for their action in regard to Soviet Russia. I think generally it is recognized by those absolutely and personally familiar with the situation that there is no such situation existing in Georgia to-day as is represented to be fact in this report. There is a rely negligible division of he Georgian people against their own interests and against independence and in favor of the Soviet Government. These are communists. It is true that in Tiflis there have been expressions favorable to the continuance of soviet rule, but tjat report is not an unbiased statement of facts; the real facts fall not at all into that category. Mr. CooPER. Have you been over it? Mr. SnWVA rT. I have not, but I have made inquiries from the very best authorities. That report is not a safe basis upon which one could inform himself of the facts of this situation, as will probably be developed by Doctor Dumbadze in a formal statement. The CITAIIMAN. Those recognitions by Great Britain, France, and Italy were made at the time the present officials who are now in Paris were in Georgia; is that correct? Mr. STFWAIrI. That is true. The Chic.... In other words, they were in possession of the country at the time of the recognition, and your resolution asks us to suggest recognition when they are not in possession, where they are functioning in a foreign capital? Mr. S'rMwAHT'r. That is true. Mr. FAcCIM.i . As I understand the point you made, in view of the fact that the Georgian Republic was recognized while they were still in possession of their soil by all countries except the United States and that no recognition has been withdrawn, that creates a situation, when they were forced out of their country, like that of Belgium, which has become a precedent in a similar
situation?
Mr. Fii. Although I am oppcsing this resolution, Mr. Stewart, and have been front the beginning, I was very much interested by your remarks. I agree with what you say about the libeity-loving Georgians, and I am familiar with their history and have tte utmost sympathy for any people fighting for their iibertv and the independence of their country. But you have a different situation from that which Mr. Little raised in the Hfouso a number of years ago. At that time I was one of the strongest advocates of his r,.colution; I talked the matter over with Mr. Little, who then desired retognition of the republic; I should have voted for it at that tine, when it
was an independent Republic, when the Menshevists were in control and the Geor gan ople had their own government. 14our years ago by brute orcc it was incorporated into the Soviet Union, and it is now a ward of the Soviet Union. The Mensheviki goveri'm-nt was forced out to Paris. It was entirely a different situation from what y'ou are presenting to us to-day and asking us to do. It is the same as if Great Britain should consider before their Parliament te recognition of the Philippines, which want independence and are under the United States Government. The point raised here by vju and by the chairman that it is identical with the Webster inr.dont to recogize Greece is not at all identical. The Greeks had a government and an army fighting Turkish control; the Greeksu wC,'e successful in certain parts and controlled certain ports. Byron fought and died in a Greek city; and, of course, it was entirely right that we recognize them, because they had a government in Greece. Mr. 1 AILE. You said that Georgia had diplomatic representatives now in several countries, and mentioned England and Germany. Do you mean accredited ministers to those countries who are in those countries now? Mr. STEWAr. Yes. Mr. FIsiT. Have those countries accredited representatives to that government at Paris? Mr. STEWART. Other governments transact business through repin every case. resentatives of the Georgian Government Mr. Fsi. What business can your government transact with any foreign government when you are not in control of a single inch of your territory and when for the first time in many years, almost centuries, there is no active fighting going on in Georgia, to-d!ay? Mr. O'CONNF.iL. How could there be under the circumstances with a military force there; how could they put up a fight? Mr. CoopiaF. This report of the British delegation says it is the withdrawn. local militia; the army is almost As to the Tcheka, It was pointed out that it was not only a question of the
internal position in Georgia, but of the international situation also. The Caucasus under Tsarlsm was garrisoned by a very large force. It was now practically held by local militia, but was still an object of foreign Intrigue, and might possibly become an objective of foreign intervention. The frustration of such intrigues in the interests of peace required special precautions. In fact, the delegation was left with the impression that adoption of the two measures recommended depended solely on the international situation. The CHAInMAx. Representatives of the Georgian Republic are
recognized by the German Government which transacts its business with that representative? Mr. STEWArT. Absolutely. (All governments are represented in Paris, where the Georgian Government can have and does have access to them and transacts business through them.) Mr. Fismi. Of course, they have not withdrawn their recognition, but when Germany or any other country wants to do business in Georgia, they have got to do it through the government in existence there, the de facto government; therefore, they do it with the Soviet Government--every country in the world except the United States deals with the Soviet Government at Petrograd. Georgia is part of the Soviet union to-day. Is it a fact that all these governments
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROUA
recognize the Soviet Government, France, England and Germany, that you have mentioned? 1fr. STEWART. They do, but they do not recognize the Soviet Government in relation 'to things pertaining to Georgia. The French and British Governments in their treaties with the Soviet Government particularly and specifically excepted Georgia from the terms of the treaty with the Soviet Government. Mr. Fisrn. How would those people--the Harriman interests, our people, and other people, Germans, English, the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., deal-froin what government do '}iey get those concessions in Georgia? Mr. STEWART. Mfay I be permitted to ask Major Opdycke to answer that question? STATEMENT OF HENRY G. OPDYCKE, CIVIL ENGINEER, NEW YORK CITY MNfr. OPDYCKE. I am a member of the Americau Society of Civil Engineers. Mr. Hum,. An American citizen? Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes; a Knickerbocker New Yorker, and I have been identified and interested in the subject of Russia and Georgia for 18 years. I became interested in some work in Russia which involved organization and functioning of egineering interests. Mr. O'CONNELL. lVere you over there? Mr. OPDYCKE. I was there several times, and in the Crimea, and familiar with Georgia all the time. Mr. FIsI. Have you ever been in Georgia? Mr. OPDYCKE. No; but I have been in close touch with the Georgian government in Paris and in intimate contact with the gentleman you have heard mentioned here to-day, with the activities of Doctor I)umbadze in Russia and in this country, and I may say, without any reward whatever financially, and since the war began in 1914, in the interest of the subject of Georgian independence itself. The subject of the Caucasus is so little known here. In fact, the discussion here to-day indicates that Georgia is not very well known. There has recentlybeen publishd a little brochure to cover this question. This committee will be provided with copies of it. Great pains were taken with it and I have read it and I know to be true largely the facts contained therein except possibly personal acquaintance with its ancient history. (See Appendix 15). Mr. V.IL:. By whom prepared? Mr. Oi-nci F. Inder the auspices of Mr. V. D. Dumbadze, and with the assistance of the Caucasian Society, which consists of a few gentlemen of prominence who are interested in the subject of Georgian independence for the subject itself. Mr. Fisir. What do citizens of other countries do, business men who want to go into Georgia and get oil concessions, manganese concessions, etc.-with whom do they deal, the government at Paris or the soviet government? rf. OPDYCKE. The history of the gentlemen who have gone to Russia for oil and manganese concessions, Sinclair, hariman, the Standard Oil Co., etc., is that they have gone to the Soviet Govern-
ment and made arrangements for concessions even in Georgia. Up to date in each case the Georgia Government has excepted to this procedure, i. e., the Georgian Government in Paris has excepted fromally. Mr. VAILE. It was taken up with the Georgian Government at Paris? Mr. OPDYCKE. No. American interests, Sinclair, and Harriman, did not take it up with the Paris Government but with the soviet, but none of them have been consummated yet, and they have withdrawn after they get into them. The Harrimans are withdrawing now. Mr. COOPER. Is this with a view to recognition of the Georgian Republic? Have they withdrawn with a view to recognition of this republic? Mr. OPDYCKE. They have withdrawn, due to the absolute inability or impossibility of the Soviet Government doing business with them. Mr. VAILE. Why is it impossible? Mr. OPnDYCKE. Because the soviets have never carried out any of their agreements. Mr. ELLIS. Impossible for them to do business with the Soviet Government? Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes; we are not doing business to-day. Mr. O'CONIELL. They do not recognize contracts. Mr. Fisit. Do you happen to know they are loing $80,000,000 a year-two or three times more than 1913-with the Russian Government? Mr. OPDYCKE. I know that the Soviet Government and their representatives come over here and plank down cash on the table and want to buy, and then they find men that will do something for ft them; that I do not consider trade. Mr. VAILE. To clarify this situation, you say these deals which the Harrimans and others have made with'the Soviet Government have not been carried through because it is impossible to deal with the Soviet Government. Suppose this situation arises, an ordinary situation: An American group of capitalists asks for a concession, permission to operate certain properties in this territory of Georgia. It agrees to pay the government which grants the concession so much money. "There is nothing further for the government to do except receive the money. Why can not such a deal as that be carried through, as it involves no particular action on the part of the government granting the concession? Mr. OpDYCiRE. It could be if they kept their contracts, but they do not. Mr. VAILE. Do they not put the concessionaire in possession? The CIAIm.%I'N. They need protection. Mr. VAILU. In what respect do they not keep their contracts? Mr. OPYCKE. In the Sinclair matters; I have not all the facts at hand just now, but after the concessions were granted the soviets demanded a loan of fifty to a hundred million dollars. Mr. VAiTL:. As a further condition? Mr. OP)DYCKE. Without being in the contract, and because it was not granted the whole thing was off and they did not deal.
Mr. CooPER. Was that the Sinclair that had the Teapot Domei Mr. OPDYCKE. The Sinclair in Russia. Mr. COOPER. Don't you know it is the same man? Mr. OPDYCKE. I do not know. Mr. COOPER. You believe it is, Is it the Sinclair that had concessions in Mexico, the one that got the Teapot Dome ? Mr. OPDYCKE. The Sinclair Oil Co. I am not familiar with the Teapot Dome. It is the New York Sinclair Oil Co. Mr. VAILX. Has it been possible, and has it been done for the Soviet Government to put a concessionaire in physical possession of properties in Georgia so that they could have operated? Air. OPDYCKF. I do not know any reason why it should not. I think they have, as a matter of fact, actually put the Harriman people in possession of certain properties there. But it is by other conditions arising since that time, making it practically impossible for them to go to work, and they are not working to any extent. Mr. VAiLE. Conditions later added to the original concession? Mr. OPDYCKE. I can not tell you what, but the facts are, and it is plainly evident by the facts, that they ae not doing iork they expected to do. The Soviet Governmelnt has absolute physical control of the lower part of that country. They are not in possession of the mountains; Russia never had them. But they can, with their army in possession there, put anybody in control of anything they want to. They have the physical power, but the fact is that new labor conditions, etc., have raised the price of materials so much that the project can not be operated. MV. FAIRCHILD. The Georgians themselves will not work for them? Mr. OPDYCKE. It is not a question of the Georgians; it is a question of the governing of the soviets in (mat territory, the way they handle the local situation. The C1fHI1.%t'AN. Have you a list of men who compose this Caucasian Societ ? Mr. OPDYCKE. No; I am not a member of that society. Mr. O'CONNEL. . Read that list. Mr. OrDycKr.. I have in my hand a heading of the Caucasiran Society, copy of circular embodying this House Joint Resolutioa 195, which has the following names on it: Henry Lane Wilson, president; Barron G. Collier, vice president; Edwin Wildman, executive director; Perley Morse, treasurer; Franklin A. Wagner, general counsel; and the following general committee: Bartlett Arkell, Robert Appleton, George Gordon Battle, Helen Varick Boswell, Robert Fulton Cutting, Barron G. Collier, Mrs. Royal S. Copeland, Mrs. James Creelman, Rev. Dr. S. 11. Chester, Brig. Gen. Clarence R. Edwards, John Hays Hammond, Archibald Hopkins, John A. Hopper, Perley Morse, John A. Stewart, William R. Wilcox, Henry Lane Wilson, Lucius Wilmerding, and Edwin Wildman. Mr. STWARr. I have a complete list which will be sent you from New York.
Mr. CooPFR.. Are those all the names? Mr. O'CONNELL. Officers and executive committee.
22
The CIAIRMAN. I would like to have a list and their affiliations. Mr. STEWArr. Yes; we will get it. (The list referred to is given in the appendix.) Mr. COOPER. It is 12 o'clock. The resolution calling for the impeachment of a United States judge is before the House. Nothing else demanding our attention is of such importance as that resolution. The CHAIRMAN. I am entirely at the command of the committee. (Thereupon, at 12 o'clock noon, the committee adjourned to meet again at 10.15 o'clock a. in., Friday, April 2, 1926).
HousE OF REPRESENTATIVES, Coi[,mirRaE oN FoREIoN AFFAIRS,
Friday, April 2, 1926. The committee this day met, Hon. Stephen G. Porter (chairman) presiding. The CHAIRMAN. The committee will be in order. We will resume consideration of House Joint Resolution 195, providing for appointment of a diplimatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia. STATEMENT OF JOHN A. STEWART, OF NEW YORK CITY-Resumed Mr. STEWART. Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, I want to ask the privilege of making a formal statement to this committee for the record, which in one phase of this hearing will, perhaps, clarify the atmosphere. I am not so inexperienced in appearing before committees of the Congress nor so ignorant of the psychology of committees generally sitting in hearings in respect o foreign nations not to understand that there is due to any such committee a frank statement as to the identity of every motivating influence and a frank disclosure of what may be suspected to lie unseen behind any such appearance as this of ourselves before such a committee as yours. Hence I feel it to be my duty to Jay before this committee the following facts in order that they may be made a part of the record of these bearings. First, the Caucasian Society was organized as a humble means of presenting to the people of the United States, and in particular to the Members of Congress, the case of the Georgians. There is nothing in regard to the activities of this committee or of any individual, a member or otherwise of it, that does not plainly appear on the surface. No oil company, no iron company, no company or corporation is identified with the society or the purposes of the society. Neither the society itself nor any individual connected with this society represents any corporate interest or any individual interest that has moved or is moving to obtain from the Georgians or from the government of the Georgians any concession, proprietary rights, or to reach any other end the attainment of which relates to business exploitation. 'Nobody connected with the conunittee, directly or indirectly, is paid any retainer or receives any emolument for wvhat he or she may be doing in behalf of Georgian freedom.
Second, what small expense there is in the furtherance here of the project to secure from the people of the United States an authority. tive expression of sympathy with the Georgian Government and their people has always been met andi is being met by Mr. Vasili D. Dunbadze out of his private, personal means; and I may say here and now, upon the authority of Mr. Dumbadze, that lie has not received nor is receiving from any corporate or private source what. soever any fund or funds that relate to any concession or to any project that has reference to the profitable exploitationi of Georgia and the Georgians. Third, it is true that efforts have been made by Americans and other nationals to secure concessions or private rights that relate to Georgia's private or public domain, but it. equally true that his Government and Mr. Dumbadze are consistently refusing to give any consideration to any such offer for concessions, returning always this reply to any such discussion: That no consideration will be given to any matter relating to the upbuilding of Georgia's industrial establishment having reference to the proper expl'ultatijn of her natural resources until after the Georgians have seclved their independence and their government occupies their rightful position in the capital city of Tiflis (with proper reservations to be made in the event of any vitally exigent situation the development of which is not now to be forese%). Fourth, it is true that when the Georgian Government shall rest in complete and secure control of their rightful territory, the soil upon which the Georgian people have lived continuously for 3,000 years, then the rightfully constituted authorities will consider such development of its natural resources in the interests of all its people; with due regard to a proper profit arising from such development, upon a basis which the government has repeatedly referred to as an "American " kind of development, but which development, however, will proceed after a plan of friendly regard for all friendly nations. But the Georgian Government has not recognized nor will it recognize the title of anyone to whom there has been granted by the Bolsheviki Government any concession, relating to any property in Georgia. Fifth, it is true that, specifically, the Georgian Government has been urged to enter into contracts with those desiring concessions, which consummated relationship would have been very immediately profitable to the Georian Government and would have permitted it to have freed itself from the poverty which besets it, but the members of the Government have courteously refused to consider any such development or exploitation until after they should have been permitted by a more kindly fate to rest secure in their capital, in Tiflis. It is true, and is frankly admitted, that as soon as the Georgian Government shall have secured control of its own country it will develop, with the help of American and others, its natural resources, and try to make such development profitable to all concerned; it is true that discussions have been had in regard to the methods by which such natural resources might be developed anti Georgia placed on a sound business basis. It is true that there has been discussion with members of the American Government
upon this subject; it is true that certain people in authority informally have suggested that there might be placed at the service of the Georgian Government and people such scientific data, such professional help as might aid the Georgians in the fair development of their wonderful resources. It is true that there is now going on and that there will continue to go on the formation of plans upon a highly scientific and economic basis that would, if permitted to be cried out,.not only be of vast benefit to the Georgians but to all pec Ales. X. Chairman and gentlemen of the committee, not only am I making this affirmation deliberately, but I am willing to put my signature to a sworn affidavit that so far as I know to the contrary there is not one fact to impugn the facts which I have herein set forth. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. One of the gentlemen asked yesterday if you could furnish the names of the members of the Jaucasian Society? Mr. SrEWART. Yes. Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Will you do thatI Mr. STEwAirr. I will do that. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. Dr. Albert Shaw is a member, is he not? Mr. STEWART. Doctor Shaw is representing the Near East Relief. Finally, gentlemen, I have here a statement of Mr. Collier which is somewhat a repetition of the statement I have just made. It is a fact highly honorable to 3arron G. Collier, whom I fancy most of this committee know, that when Mr. Dumbadze, in the name of his Government, asked Mr. Collier to accept the position of consul general for this continent, Mr. Collier replied, and that reply is le? with Mr. Dumbadze, that he would be glad to accept so hono:?-'e a distinction provided it were distinctly understood that Mr. Collier in accepting the position would accept with it no salary, no emolument in money of any other kind, and would not use his position for any money-making purposes. I have the honor to present to you, Mr. Chairman, the following statement from Mr. Collier, who'was here yesterday in person, as were Dr. Albert Shaw, Mr. Perley Morse, Mr. Edwin Wildman, Mr. Hugh James Fleming, and others, to hear and be heard upon the matter of Georgia independence. It is addressed to Mr. Poeter, dated March 31, 1926, and reads as follows:
The Republic of Georgia is situated between Asia in the south and western Europe in the north. It is bordered by Turkey and Armenia in the south, and the Crimean portion of Russia in the north. It is a gateway between Asia and western Europe. With its sister republics it numbers fourteen and onehalf millions in population. It is the cradle of tie Caucasian or white race. Its people are the blood brothers of we Americens and of Christian civilization throughout the world. Because these people for 1,700 years, or 17 centurles, have unswervingly fought the battles of Christianity, they have rightfully been adjudged the standard bearers of Christianity. They have been recognized by every important country including Russia, and they only seek the same consideration from the United States. Their desire for this recognition is by. no means a part of a program which will lead to warfare but a part of an intelligent attempt to "get their house in order." The people of Georgia are an educated and cultured people with a percentage of literacy 2 over 96 per cent. There are more than 4,000 public
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA.
25
schools, In addition to which there #re irammer schools, agricultural and theological colleges, with many technical aLd industrial schools no well. They naturally desire no interference with theso 0.duvatioial advantages which it has taken them centuries to develop. The business and industrial progress of their people should not be interrupted, and to restore their equilibrium and happiness" they ask the moral force of American public opinion.
to support their people in the enjoyment of "life, liberty, arid the pursuit of
Now, let me call particularly your attention to this paragraph:

They have never appealed to the world for aid or charity, but they do ask your committee to grant them American recognition with Its moral support now as being of inestimable value in their present struggle to restore to their people the ordinary privileges of liberty and the opportunity to administer their laws and pursue their lives and their religion in their own way.
And the statement of Mr. Collier closes with this paragraph:

The present cycle of time and events has constituted America the moral leader of the world and it is opportune and right that the cause of the Tran-. Caucasian Republic should be submitted to this tribunal of Justice. Respectfully submitted.
BARRON.
G. COLLIE,
Co'n~ul General.
Mr. ELLs. Is there any proper sense in which it can be said that the Russian Government as now constituted may claim anything as against the Georgian people by virtue of conquest? Have they ever been at war with one another? Mr. STEWART. Many times armed resistance to tyrannical authority. Mr. ELLIS. Is the. present status due to war? Were they so involved in the World War or in any way that they can claim the right of conquest, or any rights from conquest? Mr. STEWART. Not at all. Georgia was alternately inundated and self-freed for hundreds and hundreds of years. In the time of Catherine, Russia entered into a convention. Mr. ELLIS. I am asking you to come back to more recent events. They have gone in and taken absolute control of this country under some sort of pretence. Mr. STE WART. It was the same as the Belgian situation. The treaty (1783) was one of amity and friendship as between equals; it was so regarded, and the activities under that treaty were upon such basis. Georgia accepted this treaty which was advocated and forwarded by official activities from St. Petersburg, for the reason that to the south and to the east of them lay an enormous Mohammedan population, with which they had been constantly at war. When the Persians and the Turks warred with Georgia the nation was reduced by 500,000; so that as a matter of mutual policy the Georgians had been constantly at war with the Turks, and this treaty with Russia was accepted, and it operated all right until after the wer with the Persians and the Turks, in which Russia secretly connived at the undoing of Georgia. The Georgians were then so exhausted as the result of that war they could offer no real defense against the unwarranted occupation of their territory by the Russians. Mr. ELLIS. When was that? Mr. STEWART. 1783 and 1801; Russia after that war forcibly an. nexed Georgia. The annexation was never recognized by the
Georgians and they have repeatedly rebelkd. Tht Russians never were able to conquer the Georgian mountaineer,: the torch of liberty has burned there for centuries, and to-day the Soviets have given up the thought of conquering these people in their mountain fastnesses. It is only in the industrial centers, such as Tiflis. Baku. etc., that the Bolsheviks are in control. But only because superior armed force accomplished the evil act which the Bolsheviki Government that succeeded the Kerensky Government could not accomplish by persuasion. Mr. ELLis. But that domination was never recognized by the old Russian regime. Mr. STEWART. Before the time of the treaty it was constantly recognized. STATEMENT OF VASlLI D. DUMBADZE, REPRESENTATIVE OF THE REPUBLICS OF GEORGIA, AZERBAIDJAN, AND NORTH CAU. CASA Mr. DUMBADZE. In 1917 when the bolsheviki took the rule of lussia, chaos reigned in Georgia when the old Russian Governmient oiicials abandoned their posts and tied over tile border to the white armies. This abandonment released Georgia from autocratic Russian rule as well as from obligations to the new red rule. This situation compelled tile Georgians to unite into an assembly or Seim in February, 1918, after wich under their restored sovereignty they declared their independence under an act which was ratified by" their constituent assembly March 12, 1919. Afterward, in 1920, Georgia was recognized de facto by the great powers. Then Soviet Russia recognized Georgia by a treaty of May 7, 1920. A. few nignths later, in compact within the AngoraTurkish Government, without declaration of war, the bolsheviki invaded Georgia. Tile great powers recognized Georgia de jure-just before the bolsheviki invasion of Georgia. France and England protested against this invasion (see Appendix No. 7), and k rance proposed to take the Georgian Government with its parliament and cabinet into Paris where the Georgian minister plenipotentiary had full diplomatic status. which he still exercises as this diplomatic directory indicates on page 1l. (See appendix to Mr. Dumbadze's brief.) . England and France recognized Soviet Russia in 1924-25, but made emphatic reservations for Georgian liberty, that is they exCluded Georgia from Soviet interference. The Nords of the British treaty are practically the same as in the French treaty and are "Recognizes the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as Ieing the ie jure Government of those territories of tile ancient Russian Empire which recognizes its authority." The CHAntAx. I have asked the gentleman to put into the record copies of the recognitions by these various governments and other documents. Now, I will ask you this question. Did the Georgian government make an applicati6n to our Government at any time for recognition?
Mr. DUMBADZE. The Georgian government in Paris did not mak this application, but General Harbord was sent by President Wilson to make an investigation of the Near East, including Georgia and General Harbord made a very thorough report of his findings in Georgia. The CIAIRBIAN. Did he discuss the Georgian situation? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. I will ask Mr. Stewart to read this. Mr. STEWART. From the report of Major General Harbord of 19191 upon conditions in the Near East:
Let us glance at the picture and consider the historic, political, and economic past and present of these peoples and their claim to the attention of the civi. lized world, for they are among those races that "present the greatest humanitarian opportunity of the age," and upon whose destiny depends the "world' s peace at the world's crossways, the focus of war infection since the beginning of history."
The CHAIM AN. Is that all he said on the subject? Mr. OPDYCKE. There is considerably more. (Full report attached.) Mr. STEWART. That excerpt is from page 3 of this blue book by Dumbadze. (Appendix No. 15.) Mr. MooRe of Virginia. You said a while ago that the mountaineers of Georgia have never acquisced in or submitted to the Soviet rule. Mr, )U1MADZE. That is true. Mr. Moopr. of Virginia. What proportion of the population is made up of mountaineers? Mr. ]J )311ADZE. The proportion is small, maybe one-tenth of the wholc Georgian population, but they were so strong, owing to their strategic position, that in 1924, when Soviet Russia turned all our churches into dancing schools and killed and exiled 30,000 women and children, these mountaineers came down from the mountains and freed all Georgia from the Bolsheviks, and it was not until Soviet Russia later ecnt 100,000 red soldipru that they were obliged to go back, and they are still in the mountain. Mr. MoorE of Virginia. Does the Soviet Government undertake to send anv armed forces into the mountains? Mr. l)U.MnDAzE. They undertake it in summer, but are unsuccessful; in the winter it is not possible to penetrate these mountains. Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Fighting goes on whenever they attempt to go into the mountains? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Mr. MoonE of Virginia. It is very similar to the case of the natives in North Africa. Mr. DuMRADZE. Yes. Back irn the Russian Tsarist rgim6 they tried for 55 years to conquer the Caucasus. Owing to their strategic position, only when old Russia granted a vice royalty to Georgia did they desist, and the Georgian mountaineers held this strategic position in the Caucasus in that remarkable manner for 55 years. George Keinan described these people in his book with great care. The CHAIMAN . Was the recognition by Great Britain and France and other Europvan countries of the Georgian Republic made at the request of the Georgian Republic? Mr. DuMDADZE. The de facto recognition by Great Britain and France and Italy and others was made upon our application. In the
tic
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
Interallied Conference of which Briand was president, de jure recognition was accorded us upon our demand January 27, 1921. The letter is as follows:
INTERALLIED CONFERENCE,
Parks, January 27, 1921. To his excellency M. GLwEUETCHKORT, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgia, Paris. Mr. MUNISTM: After having taken cognizance of the decision by which tMe supreme council, under date of January 20, has resolved to recognize de jure the independence of Georgia as soon as this country should formally express the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27, to adress to me the official request of the government and the people of Georgia, to become recognized de jure by the allied powers. I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was unanimous in deciding to recognize de Jure the Georgian Government. The allied powers arp happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy with which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward independence and the admiration inspired in them by the work it has already accomplished. Be pleased to accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard.
BRIAND.
and France recognized the Soviet Government they made reservation in favor of the Georgian Republic, a distinct reservation? Mr. DUMDADZE. Yes; a distinct reservation. Mr. MooRE: of Virginia. That has been disregarded by Soviet Ru sia. Mr. DU.MiBADZE. Yes. Also in article 2 paragraph 4 of the Russian right to withdraw, Soviet constitution, the Georgian people have a our Government to but when the Georgian people asked through authorize a referendum for that purpose, Soviet Russia refused every time, stamping their request as a revolt. (See Appendix No .) Mr. EDwARDs. Has this matter ever been taken up with The Hague Court? Mr. DUMBADZE. Not The Hague Court, but the League of Nations. Mr. EDWAI DS. You had it before the League of Nations? Mr. DT.,MBADZE. Yes; it was brought before the League of Nations, and they passed sympathetic resolutions three different times. Mr. OPDYCKE. I will read a quotation from a verbatim record, as follows:
The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922, by the third assembly, with reference to Georgia: Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. You have stated that when Great Britain
time it was passed upon the report of this committee from papers
Mr. DU.NMBADZE. This resolution was passed. Mr. OPDYCKE. This resolution was passed and repassed.
The third
which are set forth on the subject by Mr. E. M. McDonald, which I will put in the record later. The CHAIRMAN. What is the date of that? Mr. OPDYCKE,. 1924. Mr. EDWARDS. Then they did nothing more than pass a resolution by the assembly? Mr. OPDYCKE. That is it, September 25, 1924.
NATIONAL MPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
29
(The resolution and report referred to are as follows:),

The assembly has referred to the sixth committee for consideration a proposal submitted by the delegations of Belgium, the British Empire, and France in the following terms: "The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922, by the third assembly, with reference to Georgia: "Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunly which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any p&aiceful means in accordance with the rules of international law." This proposal is a textual productionn of the resolution adopted In 1922. The third assembly, prompted by feelings which we are sure our colleagues all share at the present time, entrusted to the council the duty of watching the situation and seizing any favorable opportunity to improve it by peaceful means in accordance with international law. The main features of the situation remain unaltered, and the tragic events which are at this moment taking place in Georgia must bring back- to us the anxieties of the third assembly. As the resolution of the year 1922 is already on record, we may venture, in addition, to express the hope that the Governments of the States members of the league may perhaps be able to assist the council, either with information or by exercise of their influence for peace so far as circumstances may permit. The committee requests the assembly to give instructions for the present report to be communicated to the council, in order that the latter may be able, at a time and in the manner it nmy consider the most opportune, to take into consideration the indications it contains.
VERBATIM RECORD OF TIHE FIFTit ASSEMBLY OF TIE LEAGUE OF NATIONS TWENTIETIH PLENARY MEETING, 74. TILE SITUATION THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 25, 1924, AT 4 P. M. OF THE SIXTfl COMMITTEE-RESOLUTION
IN GEORGIA-REPORT
The 1'RESIDEN.%T (translation). We now pass to the fifth item on our agenda, the situation In Georgia. (Annex 15, Document A. 95, 1924, VIi.) I invite M. Enekell, chairnian of the sixth committee, and 31r. E. M. MacDonald, rapporteur, to take their places on the platform. (M. Enckell, chairman of the sixth committee, and Mr. E. M1.MacDonald, rapporteur, took their places on the platform.) The P'RESIDE.NT (translation). The rapi)porteur will address the assembly. Mr. E. 31. MAC)o. AL (Cai ida), rapporteur. The question of the situation in Georgia, which has beenl dealt with by the sixth committee. was put forward by the delegations of the B3ritish Empire, France, and Belgium. The report of the sixth committee is before you. Perhaps you will permit me, in a very few words, to outline the present situation in that unhappy country. A proud people, which for centuries had maintained its independence, became nmerged in the Ruislan nation a little over a hundred years ago. After the Great War, in common with a great many other countries in a similar position, the Georgian people asserted their independence on February 26, 1918, and adopted a constitution on the lines of a democratic republic. That nation so reconstructed was, on December 11, 1920, recognized by the supreme council, which was then composed of Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and Belgium. In view of later events, it is significant to note that on May 7 of the same year Russia herself recognized de jure the independence of Georgia, using the following words in the treaty in that regard: "Russia recognizes without reserve the independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State, and willingly renounces the sovereign rights which belong to Russia as regards the Georgian people and terrain." On January 27, 1921, the allied powers recognized the State of Georgia de Jure at the same time as Esthonla and Latvia, which are now members of the league. Similar recognition was extended by a large number of other countries: Poland, Rumania, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Argentina, Panama, Haiti, Mexico, Liberia, Luxemburg, and Siam. On February 25, 1921, the minister plenipotentiary of the new State presented his credentials to the President of the French Republic, and since that date the Georgian legation has been functioning at Paris. What then happened-and it is an almost unprecedented action in the history of the world-
WATIO NAL HEPUBLIC OF* GEORGIA

was that Russia, in spite of her recognition of Georgia, proceeded to disregard the step which she had taken and to attack Georgia. Since then the position of that country has appealed to the sympathy of all the nations of the world. 17that the status of Georgia, as constituted, has been further recognized and approved is seen by the fact that no less distinguished a person than the present Prime 3Min'ster of F:ance, M. Ilferriot, in 1922 brought the situation of Georgia, as it then was, before the French Chamber of Deputies, where his statement with regard to tl.e position of affairs was approved by the then Premier, M. PoincarC. The present Chancellor of the Exchequer in Great Britain, Mr. Snowden, brought the situation before the British House of Commons in July of last year. While it may be said, in considering this matter, that Great Britain has recognized the Soviet Government in Russia, it must at the same time be borne In mind that that recognition was limited, and was coupled with a reservation, because Great Britain only recognized the Union of Soviet Republics as being the de Jure Government of such territories of the former Russian Empire as recognized its authority. As far as Georgia is concerned, it seems to me, therefore, that she has a full right to claim the sympathy of all the other nations of the world. The representations which were made to our committee or. behalf of that unhappy State disclosed the following facts: "The sufferings of the Georgian people are beyond all endurance: the terror, which is Russia, is relaxed at times, not only does rot know any period of relaxation In Georgia, but Is becoming more and more vio!ent; deportations, Imprisonment, tortures in the dungeons of the Cheka, execution without trial of representatives of all classes are more and more numerous; the arrested political people are treated is bandits, and intellectuals and workmen are deprived of all means of work; Georgians being hostile to the power, their admission to commercial and industrial enterprises as well as Into the public services is hindered by every means; the clergy is persecuted for the exercise of their religious duties, and for having put into the true light th e actual state of affairs. The chief of the Georgian Chureb. 'atriarch Catholicos Ambrosius, was condemned to many years imprisonment and is now In vlo~e confinement." This is the situation, and I am sure it is one which will appeal to every member of this assembly. It is therefore with full confidence that I submit to you the conclusions of the second committee. [Applause.) The PRESIDENT. (translation). Professor Gilbert Murray, delegate of the British Empire, will address the assembly. delegation merely to emphasize the purely humanitarian character of this resolution. There Is no question of interference In the domestic affairs of the Russian Empire. There Is no question whatever of using any form of military pressure to bring about a settlement of the fighting in Georgia In one way or the other. But every war or threat of war Is the concern of the League of Nations, and if the wholesale slaughter and devastation now taking place in Georgia is not techhically a war it is at least a terrible example of human suffering; and the league is concerned, according to article 23 of the covenant, In endeavoring to alleviate the sufferings of mankind. We ask the council to watch for any opportunity that may offer to restore normal conditions in that afflicted region, by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law. The league wishes to offer its good offices to both sides in reestablishing normal conditions. I am afraid that we can do mromore than that, but I feel convinced that we can (1o no less. It has been suggested, as Mr. H. 31. MacDonald pointed out, that the policy of Great Britain has been inconsistent on this matter. On Jr.nuary 27, 1921, Great Britain recognized Georgia de jure as an independent State, and this year the British Government has recognized the Soviet Government: hut, as Mr. B. 31. MacDonald pointed out, the words of that recognition were very carefully, and I think correctly, chosen. I venture to suggest that it would not have been proper for Ills 3Majesty's Government to Interfere In the burning question then at issue between the Soviet Government and that of Georgia. At any rate, the recognition was expressed in very careful and correct language. Ills Majesty's Government recognized the Union of Socialistic Soviet Republics as being the do jure government of those territories of the former Russian Empire which recognized its authority. It went no further.
Professor
GILDEBT MURRAY
(British Empire). I rise on behalf of tlh British
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROIA One word more: It is only too often the fate of this assembly to be faced by problems it can not solve and by masses of human suffering which it can not with its present resources cure or even alleviate. The question arises in such cases as to what the league ought to do. It is perfectly clear that we rmust not make promises which we can not fulfil; it is clear that It would be cruel to encourage hopes which will not be realized. But surely it Is equally clear that we can not simply turn away our eyes from these masses of suffering and pretend, for diplomatic reasons, a callous indifference which we do not feel. I think we can only do, in this and similar cases, what is recommended in the resolution before us. We must beg the sufferers to be patient to the very limit of human patience; we must acknowledge the duty which for the time being we can not fulfil and ask the council to watch for every opportunity that may present itself of offering effective mediation and bringing peace to the regions where there is now war. (Applause.) The PRESIDENT (translation). Count Bonin-Longare, delegate of Italy, will address the assembly. Count BoNx.x-LoNoAnX (Italy) (translation). Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen, the fifth assembly has had a proposal laid before it in which the council Is asked to follow attentively the course of events In Georgia with a view to restoring the country to normal conditions and putting a stop to bloodshed. It is clear that, at the time when the assembly of the league is in session and is engaged in constructing its noble edifice of universal peace, it can not turn a deaf ear to rumors of war and strife. The league would be failing in its duty if, while drafting and codifying the doctrines which are to establish the peace of the world on unshakable foundations, It affected to ignore the tragedy of a war at the very gates of Europe. There can thus be no two opinions in regard to the proposal put forward by the Belgian, French, and British delegations and tie Italian delegation wishes to support it, more especially as the rapporteur has given us a very timely reminder that we should not be adopting a new resolution but simply reviving one which was unanimously adopted by the third assembly tw9 years ago. It is, however, one of the immutnble laws of international politics that countries can not allow sentiment alone to guide them, and though we are anxious to do all In our power to save every single life we can, we must remember that we are on difficult ground and that a false step might land us in a very awkward predicament. The situation of the two countries in conflict is such that the mediating action which we propose to exercise might, notwithstanding our disinterested motives, encounter most serious difficulties. We must, therefore, act with the utmost caution. Accordingly, I am glad to see from the report before us that the council is allowed wide discretion as to choice of time and methods. The council, which is preeminently a political body, will be able to consider the situation from the twofold standpoint of sentiment and reason. It can steer a course through the shoals cf this difficult problem and so attain without difficulty the humane and peaceful aim which we are pursuing. [Applause.) The PMSIDENT: (Translation). M. de Brouck~re, delegate of Belgium, will address the assembly. M. de BrouckLre (Belgium) (translation). Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen, I should like briefly to express my approval of the prudent counsel which the honorable delegate of Italy has just given us and to say how sincerely I share the hopes expressed by the British delegate. In this matter, as in every other, caution is essential. Not only in the Caucasus, but everywhere else, the league may find itself on trencherous ground. We must, first and foremost, ask the council to exercise in the future, as it has done with such conspicuous success in the past, that political wisdom and foresight to which reference has just been made and which, as experience his shown, Is very rarely synonymous with inaction. If the league taeitly allows a whole nation to fight and perish without taking the slightest heed. its Iaction would, believe me, prove so serious that, far from merely avoiding ineldents, it would provoke the most serious difficulties. 96153-26----3
32
I venture to say that the league's policy would be singularly inconsistent and indeed derisive if at a time when the foremost intellects of the day are devoting themselves heart and soul to the study of problems of peace, it should stand aloof, if it sheltered behind a cloud of abstractions, and shut its eyes to the fact that war is raging at our gates. It has been rightly said-and those who are most anxious to intervene and prevent war are obliged to recognize the fact-that, at the present juncture, we can do very little. But should we on this account remain silent Surely not. There is a certain virtue in words themselves. Things which we can not do now we will be able to do when the conscience of the world has given us greater power, and it is this conscience which we must awaken and to which we must appeal. We must, by unanimously adopting the resolution before us, speak a word of hope to the oppressed. We must tell them that we know that war, unjust war, is raging, and that sooner or later, as soon as the time comes, we will see that justice is done. [Applause.] The PRESIDENT (translation). M. Georges Monnet, delegate of France, will address the Assembly. M. GEORGEs BONNET (France) (translation). Mr. President, ladles and gentlemen. I should like to say a few words in support of the eloquent speeches which have Just been made. The draft resolution in question has been submitted jointly by the Belgian, British. and French delegations, and you will remember that it was eloquently defended in this Assembly by M. Paul Boncour. As M. de Brouck~re has just emphasized, the League of Nations can not remain silent in the presence of suffering such as are now being endured by the Georgian people. The league must make its voice heard, and this is the aim of the draft resolution which you are asked to adopt. It is true that we must exercise the utmost caution. Legal considerations must be taken in conjunction with sentimental ones. We claim that the text before you takes both into consideration, and accordingly the French delegation associates itself with what has been said by the previous speakers and asks you to adopt the resolution. [Applause.] The PRESIDENT (translation). Does anyone else wish to speak? The discussion is closed. The sixth committee asks that Its report should be submitted by the assembly to the council in order that the latter may be able to take it into consideration at tli. time and in the manner which it may consider the most opportune. On this understanding I put the following resolution to the vote: The assembly decides to authorize the transmission to the council of the report of the sixth committee regarding the situation in Georgia (Document A. 95, 1924, VII), in order that the council may be able, at a time and in the manner it may consider the most opportune, to take into consideration the indications it contains. (The resolution was unanimously adopted.)
The CHAIMAN. Proceed.
STATEMENT OF HENRY G. OPDYCKE, CIVIL ENGINEER, NEW YORK CITY

Mr. OMDYCiH. I have prepared a very simple memorandum to go into the record, recapitulating the matter. By reason of my acqliaintance and my travel in Russia I feel that I can speak wit?,
a fair degree of accuracy of the facts and with a fair estimation of

the qualifications of these people for serving their Governmenit.
Mr. Chairmann and gentlemen of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, the propriety and desirability of Congiess acting favorably on the bill before 'ou, H. J. lies. 195, authorizing the President to appoint a diplomatic representative to the Republic of Georgia, may be considered from three principal viewpoints:
First, the right to the restoration of possession of its territory under its legal position as a matter of simple justice.
Second, its moral right to possess its territory by its historical allegiance to Christianity and honesty of purpose. Third. the desirability of its independent possession of its territory by reason of its economical importance to the United States. While it is not generally appreciated in this country, Georgia's history shows beyond contradiction that it never was in fact a Russian people and always fought to remain a distinctly separate state, and only sought alliance with Russia in order to protect itself front invasion by stronger neighbors who constantly sought its downfall. The treaty with Russia in 1783 was for this sole uurpose, and when in 1801 Russia violated this treaty and annexed Georgia to its own sovereignty, it left a people continuously determined to be free, even to the (late of its final declaration of independence on May 26, 1918. These people never were conquered even by Russia's large armies often at their gates. and Russia came to realize its inability to govern Georgia autocratically, and did actually grant them a vice-royalty government which provided a better feeling, but not complete satisfaction until the revolution of the Boisheviki destroyed the Romanoff Government and presented the opportunity for independence, which was effected by their declaration of May 26, 1918. With such a history in mind the Bolsheviki did actually by a solemn treaty of May 7, 1920, renounce the rights of Russia in Georgia and" willingly granted them "without reservation" their independence and sovereignty, and further agreed to abstain from ntereference in the internal 'affairs of Georgia. There certainly was no doubt about the legality or completeness n of that act on the part of the bolslievists. Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Who was heading the Soviet Government at that time? Mr. O')YCKE. Lenin. Previous to this state of affairs Georgia sought the recognition of the world powers, and was recognized by the acts of the Argentine Republic in 1919. France, Great Britain, Japan. and Italy in the early part of 1920. and by Belgium and Germany later in the same year, do facto, all of whoin later in 1921 recognized the government de jure. and since that time, when Great Britain and France recognized the Soviet Government. they both in no uncertain terms reserved from their recognition the independence of Georgia. Within a tew weeks after the recognition of Georgia by the world powers. and even before Georgia had reasonable time to secure recognition of America. the Bolsheviki deliberately violated their treaty of recognition and with the help of Turkey from the south crushed! the population of Georgia and forcibly dro-e the Government out of the country and set up a soviet government over a beaten but unconquered country. M r. Coorr.. Did you say with the aid of people from the smith? Mr. O1-DYCK.. Turkey. People front tie south, Turkey being to the south of Georgia. Mr. COOPER. It is your claim there that tile Turks were in alliance with Russia? Mr. OI'DYCKiE. Yes; I believe that is true, that Soviet Russia had an understanding with them at least.
Such an act was unprecedented and certainly did not legally deprive Georgia of its de jure status. Therefore Georgia should be aided with our sympathy in securing possession of her country. The details of the wonderful history of this Christian land have been more fully covered by the other speakers.' But I can not leave this reason for recognition without calling your attention again to , this land of fhe Garden of Eden, the golden fleece% the cradle of Christianity, and even the beginning of the spoken language, with its wealth of ancient literature and art, and ask how we can afford to lose this opportunity to preserve them for posterity. Much consideration should be shown to the desires of the officials of independent Georgia, who when driven out of their country by the reds, gathered up what money and stores they could carry, took along with them the ancient art treasures of Georgia, and carried them away to France where they were safely stored in the vaults of the French Government awaiting a time for their restoration to an independent State of Georgia. It may be noted here that, unlike the other ravished countries, they never asked charity from the world, and these fleeing officials instead of lining their pockets with the values of Georgian art in their possession, used the money taken away for the benefit of its many refugees, stored the art treasures away, and went to work for a living while ceaselessly toiling for their liberty. To-day they are living in Paris in extremely humble fashion, although functioning properly in the maintenance of the Georgian Legation. Surely such conduct should be rewarded by the Christian world, and especially by America whose love of a square deal, its valuation of the Christian faith, and its preservation has so very often caused it to unselfishly support downtrodden communities. It is my personal knowledge that these gentlemen of the legation had a building of several floors where this legation was maintained.
gether in the evenings aiter work to transact their business, and at a tremendous sacrifice. The pay of one of these gentlemen, who is of an exceedingly high type, was approximately $80 a month in our money. Mr. VAniL. From what source was that received? Mr. OPDYCKE. He was doing translating work and library work, archaeological work, with the French Government. Mir. VAILE. It was not money paid by the people of Georgia? Mr. OPDYCKE. N'o; they were working for outside people-French activity-had a job in Paris. At these metings, where we gathered together a number of times, the meals were very frugal and the whole conduct that of frugal people. Georgia and its federated neighbors have within their boundaries immense stores of oil, manganese, copper, timber, and silk cocoons, cotton, tea, and many other natural resources well known to this committee and required by the United States in its manufactures. The Soviet Government have well established the fact that no real commercial relations of any degree of reliability can be carried on by
They were functioning there in the various ways that they had of doing things that they could do without physical possession of their country. The acting president, when I was there, lived in an apartment on the fourth floor a very modest apartment, and they got to-
them, and, on the other hand, the high character of the independent government of Georgia guarantees reliable business relations with them, and it may be further said that they are even anxious to have the help of American ingenuity and energy. They have expressed many times their desire for development by American capital under the most liberal terms. To sum up the problem before us I might simply say that this country, small in size but great in history, character, and opportunity, deserves our help and we in turn should recognize our power to aid humanity by helping them with every means possible to regain their territory, thereby performing again our duty to posterity and as well opening this tremendous field of economic value to our coun.y. An intimate acquaintance with many Georgians covering a period of the past 15 years has convinced ine of their absolute loyalty and integrity. I therefore beg your favorable rel)ort on the resolution before you. One work in connection with communication between the Georgian mountaineers and the Georgian Government in Paris. I hapl)pened to have been present at a mne2t;ng of this conference where actual communication was, kept up with these people in the mountains. I have seen communicat ions arrive and coninunications depart. 'Mr. 1)umbadze while there things I have been present with were goinr on. I simply call his attention to the fact that in that respect it kold ive you Q'ntletnen the fill facts-that there are groups of men in control in the mountains there and in other pants of Georpia. Mr. CooPFR. It was m y understanding at. the time of this recognition when the Menshivists were in control there that many of them wanted that alliance with Russia because they had been allied with them before, to save them from the Turks, and the Turks were then battling through there. Mr. OpDYCKE. They were coming tp there under what we believe was an agreement with the Bolsheviks. Doctor Dumbadze can give you more direct information because lie was there on the job at the time. Mr. Mootr of Virginia. Let us get more as to the present conditions. Are the Turks as well as the Russians occupyinig Georgian this territory tit time? Mr. Ornycic.. No. The attitude of the Turks is different now than at that time. Mr. Moonu of Virginia. Wherein different? Mr. Orvyctr:. Because just at this particular time when they canto tip into Georgia from the smith as the Bolshevists came down from the north. thie was an under stan(1in or ahllin'e of s.ome kind between them, the details of which Mr. l)umnbai;ze can give you. Mr. 'Moom Virginia. They did not fight each other? of rYcht.lz. No: they were acting together to accomplish time Mr. Oi same results. MIr. 1)UMBADZE. Georgia was invaded by Soviet Russia and the Turks. Turkey got from Soviet Russia 10,000 square kilometers of our land. 250,000 in population, and copper mines of 6,601,000 tons estimated deposits, etc.
Mr. M[OORE.. The Turks along with the Russians invaded Georgia? Mr. EATON. The Turks took one section and Soviet Russia took
the other, and they drove you and your government'out? Mr. DUMR.%DZE. Yes; tley were in agreement at that time. Mr. EATON. Was anything said about that matter, any reference made to the Georgian Republic in treaties negotiated at" Lausanne. the Turkish treaty? Mr. DUINJBADZI,. No; nothing, because we had no representative there. Mr. COOPFR. That is the time that the Turks went through Armenia just below Georgia and butchered the people indiscrininately, slaughtered thousands of them, and then were coming up into Georgia? Mr. 1)UMIAIDZF'. No. The Turks did not go through the Republic of Armenia at that time. The Turk came his own way front the south along the coast of the Black Sea. .Mr. CooPE,R. I understand they did not get into Georgia necessarily through Armenia, but it 6,as the same time they wire going up through Armenia and butchering them by the thousands, the same time that they went into Russia? Mr. I)UMIADZE. No. They were not in the Republic of Armenia at this time. When my government withdrew to Batoum, the farthest western part of tieorgia, tho Turks and Soviet R.its;a occupied the industrial part of Georgian country along the railroad. The Soviets and Turkey negotiated a treaty about trade and diplomacy at this time. Mr. EDWARDS. Where were these Armenians slaughtered? Mr. Du.3 Anzr. The Armenian slaughter was not at this time. Everything was quiet in the Republic of Armenia. The Armenians, then Bolievistic, did not fight with the Turks after 1920. Mr. EDWARDS. Are the Turks still harassing the Armenismns? Mr. I)u.%m.%zr. They did not harass the Armenians in this section which is tho Bulshevistic Republic of Armenia. I hear the Turkish Government is getting more progressive and liberal in their governjuent, and wherever they have political influence they will use all well-known means to modernize their Government and quiet the population. Mr. FAIRCHILD. Regarding the phy-sical condition here. I notice by this meap that the Caucasus Mounitains run fcom the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea. Along that land al))roach from Russia ig there easy access by land? Mtr. I)uMIIAIIZE. No. Not directly to Georgia. Mr. FAIuCHILD. In other words, if Turkey and Russia were cooperating together in warfare with other nations, would the possession of Georgia by Russia give them an easy access by land, or -woul they be dependent upon the Black Sea approach to Georgia? Mr. DUAMADZE. While the physical access through Georgia itself between these countries is difficult by land-and more or less easy by the Black Sea-the obviously ultimate fall of the tyrannical government of the soviet will leave the aspirations of the Turk to possess Georgia a matter to be dealt with later, as Georgia adjoins and is open to Turkey on the south, and may afford an opportunity, if Georgia is not protected, to add this Christian nation to the Mohammedan forces.
NATIONAL RiEPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. STEWAR. How does Russia get access to Georgia--over the mountains? Mr. DuMBADZE. Directly through the mountains; it is very difficult.to get through the mountain passes; the army can not get to. Georgia that way. So they send soldiers by way of the Black Sea. Mr. FAIRCHILD. You have explained that the wealth of Georgia is the motive why Russia wants to keep possession? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; together with its immense value imperialistically as a base for mihtary operations and propaganda against Persia, etc. the whole of Asia Minor and Mr. FAIRCHILD. I was wondering whether Russia's relations with the rest of the world would be helped in their alliance with Turkey, by being next-door neighbors-was that one of the motives? Mr. DUmiADZE. Yes; and besides this economical value Georgia possesses, according to statistics of the United States Department of the Interior, high-grade manganese mines, estimated at 110,000,000 metric tons, of which America uses 850,000 tons annually. Georgia's supply is sufficient to last the American steel industry 120 years. Mr. FAIRCIHLD. Are there ,any easy passes over the Caucasus Mountains? Mr. DUMBADZE. No. There are only two passes, and they are extremely difficult. Mr.'FAIRCI,). There is no easy access by land from Russia to Georgia? ir. DUMBADZE. No, not at all; on the contrary. Mr. FAIRCHILD. The only access is bv the Black Sea? Mr. DUM.,BADZE. Yes. The Black Sea, except the passes mentioned. The CHAntrAN. When the bolsheviki entered Georgia, was it by way of the Black Sea or the mountains? Mfr. DUMIBADZE. Azerbaidjan and Armenia. They established Bolshevisim in Azerbaidjan on the eastern side, in 1920. The CI[AIUMAN. They came in by way of Baku?
Mr. I)U.3tADZE. Ys.* Mr.. MARTIN. Ilow much of an army do they have there now? M',\fr. I)u3.i .. I Georgia from Azerbidjan, about 40.000 in
1921.
Mr. C(oot'F. Where do you get those figures from? Mr. 1)UTii.%Dzt:. Fron statistics in Europe and America and quoted
They then sent 60,000 additional soldiers in 1924-1925.
on page 9 of Karl Kautskv's book on Georgia. Mr. CooFU. Was it 30,600 or 60,0001 Mr. Duimm)zE. I mentioned two years, 1924 and 1925; some statistics show 35,000 in 1922; some 60,000 additional 1924, and statistics of last year, 1925, showed from 35.000 to 45,001) additional in 1925, totaling over 100.000 Soviet troops in Georgia. Nr.Coo rFl. is, in the three countries? That Mr. DUMiBADZE. No; I men Georgia. Mr. Coo R. Was it in Georgia alone? Mr. DUtIHAuZE. Distinctly I mentioned Georgia. They transfer troops from their other soviet countries in Trans-Caucasus, as needed; where they tre keeping their troops at this identical time it is impossible to say. Mr. EujS. Is thai arny sustained by taxes assessed against the people of Georgia?
NATIONAL REPUBIUO OF GEORGIA
Mir. DUMBADZL. Yes; that army is supported by the Soviet M6scow Government, who impose outrageous taxes on our people. Mr. VAILE. In a statement read yesterday from those British labor representatives' report, it was said at the time of the statement the only military force in Georgia consisted of militia. It did n6t, as I remember,'describe what the militia was. Mr. CooPER. It did not say "only," either; it said principally by the local militia. Mr. VAILE. IS there any local military force comprised of the people of Georgia which is concerned with its government for Soviet
RtussiaI
Mr. DuBmAzE. No. The regular troops of the independent Republic of Georgia, after being driven westward by the Soviet army to Batoum, dispersed when the government left Georgia for Paris. Some of these troops were captured and some fled to the mour -tins north of Kutais, where they remained out of reach of the red army. There was no other army or independent troops of Georgia other than these and the mountain soldiers spoken of. When the Soviets invaded Georgia the first to arrive from Russia were the "Tcheka "--composed of men of every race under the sun-with a number of former Georgians recruited'in Moscow. Then followed the regular red army, among which there were also some ex-Georgians. These two organizations-the Tcheka and the red army-were the only invaders and are to-day exercising their arbitrary Russian inquisition-punishing without trial, etc., as you well know. I desire you to fully imdcrstand that at no time did any body of Georgian soldiers, regular or local, desert their people and fight for red Russia. Mr. EDWARDS. HOW many communists do you have in Georgia, if any? Mr. DU.MBADZE. According to statistics of Bolshevik Russia, dated February, 1925, there are about 369,000 communists in Russia, and these statistics show that Caucasus has 6 per cent of them. As the Caucasus has about 22.000, as Georgia has about one-fifth of the population of the Caucasus, a proper estimate would be about 4,500 more or less. Mr. EDWARDS. What about Georgia? Mr. DU.HiADZE. We have not apportioned it. There is no means to calculate; very few. Mr. VAILE. How large is this local military force of militia which is referred to in that British report? Mr. DU3MBADZE. This British report was made in 1924, and at that time the forces of Soviet Russia were large, because the Georgian people were fighting against Soviet Russia. The Georgian soldiers which were captured as soldiers may have been forced into the Russian Army. The Communist army in Russia may be 500,000 to 700.000 soldiers, a few of them are "Communists; some are hired soldiers, and some along with captured Georgians were forced to serve in the Bolshevik army. Mr. VAILE. Those soldiers you are now referring to were in the Soviet army? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. VATLE. They were part of the national force of Russia? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Mr. VAILE. The British report seemed to refer to a different force corresponding to our local militia, to a local military force? Mr. DUMBADZE. ' he British report can not be taken as a reliable report as it was discredited universally by even the Socialists of the world, and besides it flatly contradicts the Soviet's own official statements. I will file with you a very able comment on that reportby the Social Democrat Labor Party of Georgia. Mr. VAmLE. I think you are probably correct. Mr. DUMBADZE. It was not accepted by the English Government and people, and we are deeply convinced that it is Soviet propaganda, an insidious example. Mr. VAILE. Very good; and I think you are correct in saving we can not rely on it; at least, not wholly, but we want to find out to what extent. Mr. DUMBADZE. There is a Georgian military force under the Soviet regime, composed of Russian Soviets. Mr. VAILE. The Georgian militia served the Soviet regime, but not in 1924? Mr. DuMfBADzE. Not at all, except these communists from Moscow, who were exported from there. All countries have communists now. Mr. VAILE. Did the Georgian people have any local police force which operated to maintain order? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes, but they dispersed when Soviet Russia entered Georgia. You refer to the Georgian regime; it was Bolshevik Soviet Russia regime which was referred to in the English report. Mr. VAILE. Then all the ordinary police work was done by the Soviets? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes-after the soviets entered Georgia the Tcheka; not like we have in America, the police force, but the Soviet Teheka who condemn without trial, without court. Mr. MARTIN. You do not think the sentiment of your country is in favor of Russia?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Not at all.
Mr. MARTIN. That statement was made yesterday. Mr. DUMtBADZE. I repeat there is not that sentiment. If our country would be allowed to have a plebiscite, I do not believe the Georgian Republic would give 1 or 2 per cent in favor of the Soviet regime or any Russian regime at all. Mr. FAIRCHILD. You say if there was a vote in Georgia about 2 per cent of the Georgians would vote for Russia? Mr. DUMBADZE. 1 do not believe even that many would vote for Russia. Mr. MooRE of Virginia. Dnrin- the centuries has there been much intermarriage of Russians and (eorgians? Mr. DU MBADZr. A few of them; it is difficult to tell about that. The integrity of the Georgian people stays always the same; the Georgian influence prevails, if a Georgian marries a Russian the children are Georgians. Mr. COOPER. Have they refused to let you have a plebiscite? Mr. DUMBADZE. They refused it distinctly.
06153-2G------4
40
Mr.COOPER. Do you know that General Wood in the Philippines has refused to allow the Philippines to have a plebiscite? Mr. DUMBADZE. I am not entitled to critize Genecal Wood's acts. I am only considering the Georgian question. Mr. EATON. You have the Tcheka yet, do you? Mr. VAILE. Just as we have a local police force. Mr. DUMBADZE. It is not like a United States police force, unfortunately, but as I explained previously a Russian inquisition. May I be permitted to file a brief afterward s? The CIAIR-MAN. Yes. Mr. DUMBADZE. With statistics and document that the Congressmen want. I will file it. (The statement referred to is as follows):
STATEMENT BY MBR.VAST!.I 1). DtMnIA0ZE. GENERAL. DIPLOMATIC AND IECONOM1C REPRESENTATIVE OF TIE RItl'unl.ir OF GOmuca.' Mr. Chairman and gentlemen of the Committee on Foreign Relarions, among the nations emancipated by the events of the Great War and by the revolutions which followed. Georgia is one of the most ancient. She is also the nation which has kept longer than any olher the last vestige of her independence; indeed she was not annexed to Russia until forcibly annexed In the beginning of the niteteenth century, so that this foreign domination lasted but a little over a hundred years. From a geographical point of view, Georgia is very distinctly separated from Russia; that Is to sy, from that vast plain stretching from the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea to the Baltic, and the Arctic Ocean, by that natural barrier formed by the chain of the great Caucasian Mrsro.unins on the north. From the ethnographical point of view the Geo-.gian people, being" in no wise Slav, are altogether unlike the Russians. They are of a different type, as entirely different as are their language, their traditions, their customs, and their manners. Although the majority are like the Russintis. profe.sedly of the Greek Orthodox Church, the Georgian nation, even in this particular domain, has never mingled with the Russians. 11er ecclesiastical traditions were maintained even under Russian rule. in 6pite of the temporary suppression of the ancient rights of the Georgian Church, Georgia restored this autocephaly of the Georgian Church on the muorrow of the pan-Russian revolution in 1917. These priniordiail facts taken into consid#-ration, it is easy to understand that with the crumbling of the former Russian Elipire in 1917-18, a people such as the Georgians. homogeneous. with pronounced ethnical characteristics, with feelings of nationality aroused, having a still vivid remembrance of a*freedom of age-long duration, pos.sessed of a precisely defined territory, alert and already initiated into political life. would (f necessity have to constitute themselves an indeipelent State, or otherwise descend into inevitable chaos. This movement for independence in Georgia was altogether spontaneous and without pre(edent unanimous. Already during the last decades of Russian rule an exceedingly strong denioeratic current had made itself felt in Georgia: it was at its height durToward. 1917 it Ing the revolution wlhieh convul.ed Ru-1sia in 1905-1906. reached completed maturity and Is the chief reason of the stability of the Institutions created by independent Georgia. National sentiment. fertilized and renewed by the ideal of democracy, facilli stated the application of this ideal. acting a. a sure basis. a settled framework, a medium. coherent and united in spite of the differences in class and conditions. T'ils rapid outline i. sufficient to show how not only inevitable in view of political ciretunstances, but also essentially necessary was the solemn act of 2th May. 1918, by which the national council proclaimed the independence of Georgia an( the Installation of her government. Georgia. of which Tiflis. with its half-million population, is the capital, Is situated in Transcaucasia, between the Black and the Caspian Seas (40-49
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA northern latitude, and 39-470 east of Greenwich). She is separated from Old Russia by the celebrated Caucasian Mountain chain, which stretches for distance of a thousand miles from the Black Sea to the Caspian, and has an average height of 10,000 feet and In some places, and as in the peaks of the Nbllruz and the Kasbek. even 18,000 feet. The frontiers of Georgia are-in the north, the Caucasian Mountain chain; ill the east. AzerbaidJan; in the south, Armenia; and In tile southwest, Turkey. To quote from an interesting booklet of impressions and observations on Georgia. ly Mr. Karl Kauisky, member of German Parliament investigating conditions in (k!orgia: "At a first glance Georgia is bewitching, and this impression deepens as the endless variety of its pictures disclose themselves to our view. From a eat-oast. with subtropical vegetation. the Caucasus rises to a height of more than 15.000 feet. The (erman explorer. Merzbaeher, related in his book 'TI.e Caucasian Highlands.' that from the summit of Elbrus (18,000 feet), he enjoyed a view which made such a powerful Inpression that compared with it the laks of the Central Alps only left at feeble remembrance. "He also declares that the Via Mala, the Tamina, the Liechtenstein Gorge, and other renowned places were left far behind by the wild, rocky scenery of the Tchegun or of the Alasan and Korsuf Rivers. Neither the Bernese Oberland nor Engadine, neither Judikarlen nor Cortina came near to equaling the Swanetnian landscape in the grandeur of its proportions or in the splendor of its colors. "I have quoted the testimony of the classic explorer of the mountains and people of the Caucasus, as I was prevented from enjoying Its beauties on the spot. "Merzbacher was as well acquainted with the Alps as with the Caucasus, and others who knew both mountain ranges consider the beauty and dimensions of the Caucasus to be superior to those of the Alps. If the reader will' Imagine the Day of Naples to be a part of Switzerland, he will get an idea of the variety and perfection of nature to be found in Georgia. "Georgia not only combines subtropical coasts and glaciers but also contains n great fullness of vegetation, produced by the tropical heat and great hunidity, and close to this are arid desert regions. There is also a surprising number of medicinal springs of various kinds, which burst out of the volcanic soil. "Georgia has much to offer to Invalids, as well as to nature lovers and artists. before the war tourists and invalids, both from Russia and from western Europe, had begun to visit the wonderful country whose attractions were heightened by the fact that, unlike Switzerland and Italy, they were, In many respects, as yet untried. In the Caucasus there are virgin forests and remote valleys which no stranger has hitherto trodden. An evidence of the primitive character (of the country Is furnished by the circumstance that large beasts of prey are constantly met with there, as well as other kinds of wild animals. Bear's flesh comes into the market at Tiflis for sale like h(evf with u tand at no higher price. On one occasion when, out of curiosity, I bought some bear's flesh I asked where the bear had been shot and was informed 50 miles front Tifllo-quite near the capital and not in some remote Caucasiai valley. "But Geor-ia is not only a veritable paradise for tourists, sportsmen, and invalids. Nature also felt obliged to please the economists. Natural beauty and richness of soil, which are so seldom found together, are combined in Georgia to nn extraordinary degree. The soil iN extremely fruitful and capable of hearing rich harvests of southern and northern products. according to the position of the lanjid. Oranges. figs. olives, and tea flourish on the coast of the Black Sea anti cotton is cultivated toward Azerbaidjan. Maize, wheat, or barley are sown almost everywhere. Georgia is particularly rich in excellent wine and seems to be the home of time grape, which grows wild in the woods. Tobacco also thrives very well and In quality seejns to be better than that of Trebizond. Nowhere have I seen such abundance of fruit as in Georgia, and in this respect It can only ie compared with California. The Georgian mounIn tains, e.specially tie Cauclsus, are infinitely rich in valuable wood. minerals, too, Georgia conceal, great treasures, of which the most important is the manganese of Tchiaturi, which ranks as the richest in the world. "Thus Georgia lacks nothing to make her not only one of the most beautiful. but also one of the richest countries in the world," (P. 11 ff.)
42,
NATIONAL REPUBLIC O'F UEOROIA
In enlarging upon the natural resources which Georgia possesses, her imniense manganese deposits are of first consideration. In order to sum up briefly the Importance of Georgian manganese to the American steel industry and to show the comparative reserve supply in these two countries, let me quote from United States Document No. 1: 9, "Manganese and Manganlferous Ores in 1919," by H. A. C. Jenison: "About 850,000 gross tons of high-grade ore was required In the production of 41,000,000 tons of steel in 1918, and at that rate the high-grade (domestic) reserves could supply the requirements of the steel Industry for less than two years. (P. 96.) "The reserves of high-grade ore (in the Tchiatour district of Georgia) are estimated variously at 45,000,000 to 110,000,000 metric tons-enough to supply the requirements of the American steel industry at the rate of production in 1918 for 50 to 120 years." Aside from tile manganese mines, Georgia possesses several large deposits of iron ore. Immense quantities of copper ore exist in the Georgian soil. Copper Is found almost everywhere throughout the State and is regarded as one of its great assets. Georgia has been called, potentially, a second Montana, on account of the practically limitless copper deposits. Aside from copper, which Is found not only In Georgia but throughout all of Caucasla, silver, lead, and zinc are plentiful; mercury, nickel, and cobalt are also inuned. In northwestern Georgia oil Is so plentiful in the soil that the peasants for years have secured their fuel and light from taps In their "back yards," much as an American farmer would go to the spring for water, or a Scranton, Pa., suburbanite replenishes his coal bin from his residential plot. The oil-bearing fields of Georgia have been scientifically surveyed by M. Koniushewski, a wellknown Russian mining engineer, and by V. Babet, geologist and chief of the Georgian Governmert laboratory at Tiflis, 1918-1921. In their elaborate reports both of these experts present a wide range of oil-bearing lands, " Which," says 31i. Babet, "are distributed almost anywhere in Georgia." The Georgian field, offering untold wealth, has been but superficially worked. Georgia possesses very rich coal beds, which, however, have never been the object of extensive exploitation. The reserve supply in the mines of Tvibouli is estimated at 94,500,000 tons. Much more rich than the coal deposit of Tvlbouil is that of Tk.vareheli, situated 60.4 miles from the port of Otchemtehlirl in the basin of Gallzga. The deposit of coal, without counting the thin layers, is estimated at approximately 140,000,000 tons; and in adding the thin layers it would amount to approximately 200,000,000 tons. The quality of this voal is equal to that of Great Britain. (D. Abkhazi, "IL es Itlchelsses Naturelle.; do la Georgie.") Rich deposits of gold have bcen discovered In the Caucasian Mountains and in the sands of the river bed% although gold mining has not been recently developed to any considerable extent. Antiquity, however, is full of glorious legends of the pilgrimages of the Argon:uts to collect gold In the streams of the Cau.asus. The ancient historians, Manon, Ilerodotus, Dlodore, say that Colchide (western Georgia), was a gold-produelng country. Strabon, the historian, relates that the torrents which fell from the Caucasian Mountains, rolled. In their fall, balls of gold smid, lie adds that there was extraced also from its soil, silver and iron, and he perceives the reasons for the expedition of the Argonauts, in the rlchus of that country, where "one fould in great quantity gold, silver, and Iron." Pliny mentions the great wealth of these regions In precious metal". Plutarch reports that Savtak, King of Iberia (eastern Georgia). sent to 1'inpeii a bed, a table, and a throne of pure gold. (Plutarque: Pompke; XI,.) The reason for the nonexploliation of this tremendous ore wealth is that the Georgian mountaineers, in protest against the violation of Georgia's treaty with Ruszia in 1801-1,1O, have never permitted the itusslans, either under the Czar's rglime or the Soviet r6gime, to penetrate into the Interior of their mountain fiastneses. With reference to this subject there Is an interesting statement it a b)ook called "Turkey, ltMm,,ha, tile Blink 'e'. nud Clrca,:sia," published in 1851 by It. Clay, London (pp. 342-3.13), as follows: "Ileineggs. the Ilmssian mineralogist, one of the earliest travelers in the Caucasnms, who was sent out many years before the war (Russia's war with Circassin, which lasted for 55 years) commenced with presents to the chleftians of the Camcasus, but really with the Intention of ascertaining the truth of time reports respecting the existence of gold in the mountains, in his report to the government, says that lie discovered. on the south side of the territory of the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Suonl, the galleries and shafts whence the ancients, in all probability, were accustomed to get their wonderful supply of gold and silver. From that time all traces of them have been lost; hence it is concluded that the mountaineers, dreading the inroads of foreign invaders, destroyed every vestige of them. That gold exists in that part of the Caucasus, there can be no doubt, as this metal is found in the Ingour and all its tributary streams that have their source in the alpine region of Elbruz. It is also worthy of remark, that shortly after the report of Reineggs, the Ru-slans commenced their aggressive war in the Caucasus, no doubt partly stimulated by the hope of obtaining possession of their valuable mines. Indeed, there is not an iMtelligent Russian, whatever may be his political opinions, who does not believe that these mines will one day prove the source of Inexhaustible wealth to any power who may obtain possession of the country. Since Reineggs's time, several attempts have been made by adventurers to obtain an entrance into the mysterious home of the Suoni in their search for gold, but they never returned." The development of hydroelectric power in Georgia is still in its infancy. The great number of rivers and streams of the Caucasian Range, offers vast opportunities as an inexhaustible source of water-power energy. Professor Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, in his book " The Deluged Civilization of the Caucasus Isthmus" (p. 84), published In 1923, has this to say on the subject of hydroelectric power from the Caucasus (in which Georgia shares with more than 75 per cent): "The Caucasus is better provided with power than any other place in the ,world. The principal sources are: 1. Hydraulic, from the melting of the glaciers and rainfall, 120,000,000 horsepower. 2. Hydraulic. from flow equal to evaporation, from Black Sea to Caspian Basin. 5,000.000 horsepower. "The figures for the hydraulic power may be taken as correct; the writer was engineering commissioner for the Ontario Niagarit Falls Power Commission, and that plant was erected by his assistants. They are the horsepower obtainable from the sources 365 days per year, 10 hours per day. With a free hand and a golf course one could in five years (the financial problems have nat been overlooked; the witer was brought up in the banking business) transform the Caucasus isthmus Into a creative Hyperborea which would supply all of Ru. sla with more than it could Possibly use of everything except cervalz, and give opportunity for the development of a civilization as it should be, i. e., one in which the necessary physical labor becomes a form of healthful, universal, and useful physical exercise and all else is a matter of individu:,l initiative." For more detailed informnation on the subject of the mineral resources of Georgia, see Appendix No. 1. "Mineral. Resources of Georgia and Cuca.isla." by D. Chambashidze, F.R.G.S. "As early as the eighth century B. C." says Mr. Karl Kautsky in his book on Georgia (p. 14), "colonies were planted by Greek towns along the Black Sea. The Georgians became acquainted with Greek civilization at a time when the Germans, or their predecessors, living in primeval woods, stood on no higher plane of civilization than the savage Indians of North America when they were discovered by Europeans." Christianity penetrated Georgia In the first century through the holy apostle, St. Andrew. At the beginning of the fourth century King Mirlan and the whole of the Georgia people embraced the new religion. Since that time Georgia has remained the advance guard, on the oriental front, of the Christian world trust Into the world of Islam. Surrounded by Mussulman countries. it is cast like a little island in the ocean of Islam which has menaced and submerged it for long centuries. Armenia having been rendered "hors tie combat" at an early date, It was Georgia alone without any assistance from the Christian world, which sustained the repeated assaults of Mussulv'ian and Mongol. Although many times victorious she was often conquered and pitilessly reduced by slaughter and fire. But in spite of all Georgia was able to maintain her faith and national character, remaining a free and independent State up to the nineteenth century. This was costly, however. for nearly a third of her territory was torn from her by Turkey and "'mmissulmanized" during three centuries of domination-and this third was the most important part as regards culture and Christian monuments. In place of 7,000,000 inhabitants which Georgia numbered during the period of her greatest glory, the twelfth century, there remained only half a million at the time
NATIONAL IIEPUBLIC OF GEORGIA of her incorporation Into the Russian Empire. In place of 115,830 square miles of territory there remained only 29,160. In 1920 the area of Georgia comprised 43,000 square miles and the population approximately 4,000,000. Christian civilization flourished on Georgian soil. The activities of the Georgian church overflowed the boundaries of the country. Georgian monks founded ten or a dozen monasteries at Jerusalem, Mount Sinai, Mount Athos, and in many other places where they devoted themselves to the service of God and to the most intense intellectual work, especially In the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. The work of certain monks of this period bears a high mark of mental culture and philosophical thought, for example, Ephrain Mtsire and George Mtatymindeli, et al. The Georgian ecclesiastical library contains among its numerous manuscripts those dating from the sixth and seventh centuries and recently a palyipsest of the fifth century containing various parts of the Holy Scriptures.
Professor Zurab Avaloff writes of these Palimpsests:

The study of 2,000 paiges of these palimpsests has only Just begun. Among the fragments already deciphered there are portions of the apocryphal lives of the Apostles, Ancient versions of the utmost importance to our canonical texts may very probably emerge from the "ensemble" of these Georgian palimpsests. In speaking of the history of the Georgian Church it would be an oversight not to mention fer archiaeologlcil treasures. "How large was the production of enamel articles in Christian Georgia," " says Prof. N. Kondakov in his book Description of Monuments and Antique Objects of Art in Various Churches and Convents in Georgia," composed by order of His Majesty, the Emperor of Russia, edited In Petrograd, in 1890, church stores of Gelat, which up to now "can be judged by looking at tile possesses so many precious productions of Byzantla, and which are counted as being very rare in the first museums of Europe and in the oldest church Byzantine repositories. Georglan churches possess more than half of all tile enamels in the world. The only rival of Georgia is the depository of the Church of St. Mark, in Venice. whose treasures were bought and brought from the Orient, and are better guarded front being looted. The antiquities of Georgia were sometimes stolen or taken away on the pretense of renovating them." in the Metropolitan Musetmt of Art in New York. were they sniehow found their way from the church of the monastery of Jumatl in Georgia, there are nine enamel medallions. In the Handbook of the Plerpont Morgan wing of this nuseaum, page 55, there is the following reference made to these medallions. (See Appendix No. 23:) "Tile highest quality of Byzantine enameling is exemplified in the nine medallions in Case J (fig. 28) with half-length figures of ChriS. the Virgin, and saints, which once decorated a large icon of St. Gabriel. now destroyed, formerly in the church of the monastery of Jumati. in Georgia (Caucasla). The medallions, which date from the end of the eleventh century, are superlatively fine it execution, design, and color. The minute surfaces of the Clolsons give the sheen of gold to the rich hues of the enamel-to tle blue and green, scarlet. yellow, and flesh color, which are set like gems In the plain gold of the background." Along with ecclesiastical culture there developed a lay culture which reached Its culmination in the twelfth century. epoch of tilegreat Queen Tamara. This was also the period of the greatest Iolitical and economic power of Georgia, whose domination extended over the whole of Transcaueasla and a large part of the North Caucasus. The Kingdom of Georgia was then bounded I)erent in the oi the west by the Black Sea and on the east by the Caspian. North ('aucasus. Treblzond in Asia Minor and Kazv-In in Persia were all inwork of this period is tile eluded within her boundaries. The best known poem of Shot'ha ltust'haveil, "The Knight in the Panther's Skinl." ,,An Engli.sh translation of this poem was made by Marjory Scott Wardrop and published by the Royal Asiatic Society. London. in 1912.) This poem is compared with the masterpieces of the Renaissance, but with this characteristic difference that it is austere and free from sensuality and scepticism. The lyric notes, the great power of which rivals. their extreme delicacy, predominate throughout this epic. The reader is carried away by the magnificent description of Nature therein. Tile translation of and commentaries upon Greek philosophical works were very widespread. Petrisoneli was the most
NATIONAL, REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA distinguished exponent of the Neo-Platonic School to which he contributed greatly. After the twelfth century there began for Georgia a period of great misfortunes. The invasions of Ghengis Khan and Tamerlane brought about in general the political, economic, and cultural decadence of the country, although there were times of recovery and renaissance. Thus in the notes of the Arabs reference Is made to 700 Georgian villages completely destroyed, numberless churches, fortresses, and castles In ruins, and of the flight of the population into the mountains where they sought refuge in secret eaves only to fall victims of the warriors of Tamerlane. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 cut off Georgia from all connection with the Christian Occident. From this time on Georgia found herself surrounded by Mohammedan peoples who made relentless war upon her as a Christian kingdom. Under these conditions Georgia was obliged to seek a Christian ally, and she turned to her neighbor, Russia, who had the same religion as herself, for protection and alliance. Negotiations were undertaken early in the eighteenth century toward the end of which Russia had fixed upon an oriental policy and sought to establish herself in the Caucasus. Thus the interests of Russia and of Georgia coincide(] and a treaty was signed In 1783 between the King of Georgia, Irakly II, and Catherine of Russia. (See Appendix No. 2.) Under this treaty Georgia retained her dynasty and complete Independence In home affairs, while surrendering to Russia her sovereignty as regards foreign affairs. Russia agreed to support Georgia by force of arms in case of a defensive'war against the Mussulman. This treaty with Russia Irritated Turkey and Perqla, who, in order to wreak vengeance upon the Georgian King, Invaded his territory several times. The Russians not holding to their obligations, failed to send an army to the assistance of the Georgian King. with disastrous results. The Russian Government went still further after the death of Catherine. In 1801 Czar Alexander I violated the treaty and proclaimed the annexation of Georgia to his Empire. The Georgian dynasty, Intellectuals, statesmen, and the most influential nobles, to the number of about 7,000, were deported to Russia and scattered here and there over Its vast expanse. The Georgian nation replied with a dozen revolts during the nineteenth century as a policy of russiflcation was put Into operation In the country. Tens of thousands of Russian colonists were brought to Georgia and granted lands. The Georgian language was driven from all state institutions. Georgian intellectuals could not find positions in their own country. The Georgian Church was deprived of Its ancient Independence granted by Antioch In tihe eighth century, and was forced to depend upon the Russian Synod administration. (See Appendix No. 10, Chronology of Important Events In the History of Georgla.) I may refer those Interested in Georgian Church history to the booklpt (Sep Appendix No. 3). called "The Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia," by Llamnz Dadeshkelinni. On page 3 of this booklet we read that"The merits of the Georgian Church before the Univetsal Church are great. We have the testimony to this effect of niany ('hristian h'1storian; e. g., Kerakos, an Armenian historlan of the thirteenth century, says that Q'een Tamara, of Georgia. made a treaty of peace with the Sultan of Damaseus. and since that time the Sultans have treated Christlans more humanely. 9Dositheus. Patriarch of .Terunsalem. says the pious lverian (Georgian) kings have always been administrators md protectors of the Holy S'rlpilmdhre and other Holy Places. "The Arab historian, lbu Shaddana. also says that Queen Tanmarn offered Salladin 200.000 dinars for the Holy Cross, and in 1197 nsked thiat tle monasteries taken from the Christians should be restored. Even at the present day there are at the Holy Places. Mount Athos. Bulgarla. Syria. Cyprus, Antioch, over 30 monasteries and churches built by the Georgians." In the thirteenth century, when the Georgian Kingdom still flourished. Georgian rendered great service and protection to ('hristlan nations4 which were under Mohammedan oppression, and centuries later, as stated by Professor Djavaloff In his book, "1 Georgian Boundaries ": "During the last centures time Armenians had often fallen back upon time Georgians, as in 1705. when thousands of refugees came to Georgia to escape the persecutions of the Persian Shah, Agha-Mahomet-Kahn. Between IS27 and 1829 Georgian hospitality was extended to more than a hundred thousand Armenian refugees front Turkey and 30,000 from Persla " (p. 32).
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF'GEORGIA The Georgian Church, from the time of its inception, has been the "principal factor of the power and glory of the national Georgian State." A very complete history of the Georgian Church has been written by Michel Tamarati, called "The Georgian Church From Its Origin to Our Days," Rome, 1910, In which he says: "If the Georgians, who had to endure through many centuries terrible and bloody political storms and continuous wars, were able to conserve to the last moment the independence of their country and the practice of the Christian faith complete and intact in its primitive purity; if to-day they speak their own tongue; if they are valued in the large family of humanity as a nation still strong, they owe this indubitably to their church. Christlanism took root in Georgia, the cross of Christ became the symbol and the emblem of their nationality and of their historic life. Thus through centuries Georgian life is a continued martyrology, a drama In history" (pp. 387-3S9). Dr. B. J. Dillon, in his book "The Ecllpse of Russia," reveals the cynical methods of the Russian Government in treating Georgia when he quotes a Russian diplomat, as follows: "We have only two ways of. dealing with weaker nations, and they are exemplified in our treatment of Georgia and Bulgaria. The Kingdom of Georgia came to us and asked for an alliance. We made it. Some time afterwards the Georgians fell upon evil days. Being attacked by Persia, they claimed our active help as equals and allies. But we answered we were too busy elsewhere and left them to their fate. Thereupon the Persians fell upon them and killed two men out of every three, so that the nation was literally bleeding to death. Then the Georgians came to us a second time, now no longer as equals and allies but as humble suppliants." There we have the Russian "method" in its naked state; and, as Doctor Dillon rightly says, "the system carried out In Georgia was the same as was being used in Turkey and elsewhere." (See p. 225.) During the first half of the nineteenth century Russia gradually abolished all privileges guaranteed to Georgia, like the law courts, administration, the monetary system, and introduced harsh administration. Georgia offered stubborn resistance to all these measures, but all was in vain, as she was surrounded by hostile Persia and Turkey, and the ever-increasing penetration of Russia did not give her a chance to restore her independence. The national institutions of Georgia were abolished at that time, the language suppressed in the schools, and every chance of individual development crushed. Forcible Russifleation was Introduced, and the young generation was refused education In its own native tongue. The national Georgian Army was disbanded in 1874. In this way the small Christian nation which expected protection received heavy blows, one after another, and this during the nineteenth century, when Russia posed as a liberator of the small Slav people in the Balkans and the protector of Christianity In the East. Guorgia was not conquered by Russia. Only by open violation of the treaty of alliance of 1783, which Georgia had concluded in good faith, was the Rus.sian Tsar enabled to bring the Georgian Kingdom under his scepter. That the Ru4.s ans became masters of Georgia by victorious warfare is not the historical fact. By a breach of international law, vigorously protested at the tivme by Great Britain and France, Russia established her overlordship of this part of the Caucasus. Russia's subjugation of Georgia was completed by the annexation of Mingrelia (in 1803) and ineretia (in 1810), formerly independent principalities and parts of the ancient Georgian Kin~gdom. But in spite of the a&-antaige taken of her momentary weakness, Georgia remained loyal to Russia, which insured her the preservation of her Christian religion. Following this annexation of Georgia, many Caucasians attained prominence in the Russian Government. In imperialist armies and as goverrors of provinces, Caucasian men occupied high posts and influenced the destiny of Russia. The distinguished Russian prime minister, Witte, well known in America for his activities In connection with the Portsmouth peace treaty during tht, Russian-Japanese War, gives in his memoirs (Vol. II. pp. 37 and 44) high praise for the loyalty, honesty, and courage of the Caucasians, "thousands an( thousands of whom," he says, "have shed their blood for the honor of the Russian sword. * * * Caucasian generals have left behind the most brilliant pages in Russia's military history."
ll
47
The officials of the Caucasian vice royalty, however, were chiefly Russians because the Czarist Government followed a policy of disrupting the national sentiments of non-Russian minorities by imposing local administration by Russians. Thus in Czarist days Georgians and the other Caucasians seldom found an opportunity of devoting their abilities to the direct benefit of their country, with the only exception of the small number who yielded to the Russification policy and abandoned their native tongue and traditions. To liberate her provinces lost to Turkey, Georgia gave full support to Russia in the three wars against Turkey in the nineteenth century, and lastly in 1914, when Georgia mobilized, apart from those special Georgian volunteer corps fighting on the Caucasus front, about 200,000 of her best manhood in the cause of the Allies. As an example of the high regard of the Russians for the Georgian soldiers, in "La Resurrection Georgienne," (p. 199), Mr. Paul Gentizon says, " As Grand-Duke Nicholas, commander in chief of the occidental front, said: 6If, during the battle, I have five or six Georgians to each company, I may feel at ease."' After the Russian revolution of February and March, 1917, and the overthrow of Imperial Russia, the viceroy who had governed Caucasla in the name of the Czar ceased to function. In October, 1917, when the Bolsheviks seized power In Petrograd and Moscow, chaos followed in Transcaucasla through the withdrawal of the entire admin. istrative, Judicial, and military establishments who fled across the frontiers and joined the WLite Armies being organized to restore old Russia. This abandonment on the part of Russia released Georgia from all obligations toward the new Bolshevik Government and threw her upon her own resources. The national Integrity of the Georgian people that had been held forcibly under Russian rule was thus automatically restored. The situation, demandIng organization and defense, forced the leaders and peoples of Georgia and the other nations of the Caucasus, to take their fate into their own hands, particularly in view of the imminence of the Turks on their frontiers, and especially to assure the continued development of their national life. The Transcaucasians united November 15, 1917, into a committee of government for the Transcaucasian States, forming a combined assembly, Siem, In February, 1918. It soon became apparent, however, that this would not work out satisfactorily. Georgia realized that she must act independently or become the victim of Turkish ambition which sought to create a Turkish Empire that would Include all the Islamitic tribes of Caucasla and Persia, and extend its Influence from the Black to the Caspian Seas, and on May 26, 1918, In Tiflis, Georgia declared her independence. (See Appendix No. 4.) The Hon. Zurab Avaloff, justice of the supreme court and member of the Russian Senate in Kerensky's Provisional Government, in his book, "The Independence of Georgia in International Politics," describes very poignantly the emotions which actuated the Georgian people in those days just preceding their declaration of Independence: "The actuality of those days obliged us to set the question precisely in that way; much deeper reasons, too, forced us to choose this path. How could we not hear in this unique moment the thunder of historical elements; how could we keep silent to the voices of those who lived no more; how could we not think of those who were yet to come? How many generations had it taken to create the Georgian nation? And for how many generations had she vainly sought conditions for her free development and a place in the sun? "Now that independence knocked at the gates-how not to rush toward her! If we missed the moment, what were we to say to those who would uome after us? Maybe this people was born but for slavery and will finally berop.e 'ethnical material,' out of which, owing to conditions, Persians or Turk3 er Russians will be molded? No! They remember! They wish to rice and be themselves again! * 0 * A page of history Is being turned over'" (p. 55). The Georgian people, under their restored sovereignty, carefully organized their new government and established international relations. Their act of independence was approved, confirmed, and ratified March 12, 1919 (aPi Appendix No. 4), by their Constituent Assembly, which was elected according to the electoral system of direct, equal, universal, secret, and proportion"l voting of citizens of both sexes. Under the system of proportional suffrage th. whole country was taken as one electoral district and the 130 seats of the assembly distributed among all parties in proportion to the number of votes cast for
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA their candidates. In the election to the Constituent Assembly, February, 1919, 514,000 electors voted-Social Democrats, 408,000 votes, 109 seats: National Democrats, 30,000, 8 seats; Federal Socialists, 33,000, 8 seats. The constitution and political organization was that of a democratic republic. The executive power was intrusted to the cabinet, whose President was elected by the Constituent Assembly. President appointed, as does the American President, the members of his cabinet. The administrative bodies were controlled by the assembly, to which the cabinet and Its President were personally responsible and whose confidence they must possess. Administration was decentralized by enlarging the power of the local councils, democratically elected. Towns, rural districts, and villages exercised complete self-government in all questions relating.to local, economic, and educational questions. All citizens were equal In the eyes of the law. The Georgian nobility, inspired by their democratic feelings, formerly enjoying wide privileges, renounced them voluntarily. The interests of workmen were fully protected. The church was completely separated from the state and was enabled to function in accordance with Georgian customs for the first time since Russia had suppressed it in 1811. The Georgian Government sought to bring their country up to the most perfect organization of life by means of systematic development of all the material and educational resources of the people and by the consolidation of the democratic institutions. Mr. Wladimir Woytinsky, In his book "The Georgian Democracy," under a chapter called "The renaissance of Georgian culture and public Instruction" (p. 265), describes very well the radical reorganization of Georgian social life effected in that Ittle Republic during the brief period of her independence and self-government. "The first task of the Georgian democracy was the radical reorganization of education. "The schools of Tsaristle Russia pursued two aims--social oppression and national oppression. "The new school, founded by the democratic State (Georgia) was to permit the affirmation of social liberty and help the development of national culture. "The organization of primary schools is not yet completed. However, at the beginning of the school year 1920-21 the number of primary schools, comprising three grades, exceeded 2,000 (nearly double the number of schools existing before the revolution) ; the number of pupils reached approximately 120,000. "Trhe school system of Georgia is arranged so that every pupil, having passed the three classes of the primary school, can enter Into an elementary high school. The schools of this type in the beginning of the school year 1920-21 numbered 150. The teaching comprises four years of study. On leaving these schools one may enter into the secondary schools, which correspond to the upper classes of European colleges and lyceums. "Education is free in all grades, including the colleges. The schools of all classes are distributed throughout the land in such a manner that the country towns are not less favored than the cities from the point of view of education. "There exist, in Tiflls, a polytechnic school and two universities, one of which belongs to the State. This State university has four faculties; literature, law, science, and medicine. The number of students, men and women, is approximately 2,000. It is endeavored to make of the State university not only a school of higher education, but a center of culture and the seat of Georgian science. Two years, of course, can not suffice to judge in what measure the Georgian University will respond to this aim. But the University of Tiflis is working with energy to the reconstruction of the history of the country. " Some hundred students, among the most capable, have been sent abroad (to [Americal France, to England, to Germany, to Italy) at the expense of the State. in order to specialize in the spheres most useful to the country. "On January 1, 1920, there were in Georgia 2,112 libraries and reading rooms. This figure is relatively high for a country of three millions of inhabitants." All parties and all classes of the population cooperated willingly with the Government regardless of personal sacrifices. The State embarked on farseeing undertakings, such as construction of railways, highways, roads, bridge'. viaducts, drainage of marshlands, the irrigation of aril plains, etc. That these plans were only partially carried out and that the efforts to maintain a firm
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA democratic commonwealth finally failed was due to the sudden and treacherous invasion of the Bolsheviks In 1921. In January, 1920, Soviet Russia's proposal to Georgia to enter into a military alliance against Denikin. who was at that time commander in chief of the White Army, which was the exponent of the regime of old Russia, was rejected; and in his book " The Independence of Georgia in International Politics," Professor Zurab Avaloff tells us that, "On February 11, 1920, Denikin himself recognized the independence of the Republic of Georgia." In April, 1920, the reds succeeded in occupying Baku and assuming power in Azerbaidjan, and later on In Armenia, taking advantage of the helpless state of these two countries that were paralyzed by economic chaos and internal dissentions. Al attempts to counteract this Bolshevik menace effectively in Azerbaidjan and Armenia therefore failed entirely. The war of Poland against Soviet Russia gave Georgia her first opportunity to pursue a vigorous defense against the Bolsheviks in 1920, and Soviet Russia, now anxious to placate Georgia, engaged In a treaty (see Appendix No. 5) May 7, 1920, recognizing the independence of Georgia and her territorial integrity. An extract of this treaty, Articles I and II, reads as follows:
"ARTiCLE I
"Basing itself on the right of all peoples, proclaimed by the Russian Socialist Soviet Federative Republie, to freely dispose of themselves, even up to and including the total separation from the State of which they form a part, Russia recognizes without reservations the Independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State and renounces fully and willingly to all the sovereign rights which belonged to Russia in regard to the people and the territories of Georgia.
"ARTICLE I1
"Basing itself on the principles proclaimed in the first article preceding of the present treaty, Russia pledges herself to renounce to all intervention in the interior affairs of Georgia." This recognition of Georgia's independence by the soviets themselves was Georgia's final triumph and conclusive release from the soviet claim. From Moscow's point of view, however, this treaty was a cloak to enable her within one month after its ratification to foment a communistic revolution within the borders of the republic and to accomplish by secret propaganda and treachery what she had failed to achieve by force. Nearly a thousand agents of the Cheka were imported Into Tiflis, under various pretexts resorted to by her diplomatic mission there, and, by the expenditure of large sums of money and by extravagant promises of loot, the communists proceeded to disaffect the Georgians and attempted to subvert the national army and to create irritating causes as an excuse for forceful interference. In the meantime, the independence of Georgia was confirmed through her recognition de facto by the European powers. To quote from a memorandum of the secretary-general of the League of Nations, on November 20, 1920: (See Appendix No. 0, "Documents relative to the question of Georgia before the League of Nations," p. 8.) She (Georgia) has been recognized de facto by the governments of the following countries: France -------------------------------------------------------. - Jan. 11,1920 Great Britain ------------------------------------------------. Jan. 11, 1920 Italy --------------------------------------------------------. Jan.11,1920 Japan -------------------------------------------------------. Feb. 7,1920 Belgium -----------------------------------------------------Aug. 26,1920 On January 27, 1921, the allied powers recognized the State of Georgia de jure, and Mr. A. Briand, president of the Interallied Conference, conlstng of Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and others, wrote to TiN Excellency Mr. E. Gueguetchkori, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgia, as follows: (See Appendix No. 6,p. 62.) Mr. MINISTER: After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the supreme council, under date of January 26th, has resolved to recognize de Jure the independence of Georgia, as soon as this country should formally express the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27th, to address to me the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OEOROIA official request of the Government and the people of Georgia, to become recognized de jure by the allied powers. I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was unanimous in deciding to recognize de jure the Georgian Government. The allied powers are happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy with which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian peoples toward independence and the admiration inspired in them by the work it has already accomplished. * Kindly accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard.
BRIAND.
Similar recognition was extended by a large number of other countriesPoland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Argentina, Panama, Haiti, Mexico, Liberia, Luxemburg, and Siam. As a result of the establishment of Bolshevik rule in Azerbaldjan in April, 1920, and Armenia December, 1920, Georgia found herself threatened by the Bolsheviks on the north and east and by the Turks on the south. While the Turks again attempted to occupy Batum, the Bolsheviks grasped the opportunity to march on Tiflis. Moscow moved its Red Army against the Georgias from three directions, from the west across the Black Sea coast, from Azerbatdjan, along the River Kura, and from Armenia in the south. Upon the arrival of these overwhelming forces in front of Tiflis the officials of the Georgian Government were forced to remove to Batum and eventually to embark on an Italian warship and to take refuge In Europe. This was In Februniry and March, 1921. As an instance of the duplicity of Soviet Russia I attach hereto (see Appendix No. 7) on official memorandum of the Georgian Government, presented to the great powers of Europe, on the Invasion of Georgia by the armies of Soviet Russia, together with an authentic report of the commander of the Eleventh Russian Soviet Army, Hecker, to the president of the military revolutionary council of the Eleventh Army, showing conclusively that even at the time of Soviet Russia's solemn recognition of the independence of the Republic of Georgia she was planning the invasion of Georgia to accomplish its downfall. (See Appendix No. 8.) The murderous invasion of the Bolsheviks In Georgia was Communistic Moscow's defiance to Europe's recognition of the sovereignty of that Republic and a typical example of the Soviet Government's treacherous use of its trentleq and d!qregard of it. obligations under them. A more brutal violation of the laws and customs of nations than that committed In Georgia could not be imagined. Moscow delivered no ultimatum, made no declaration of war, gave no valid excuse for her intrigue and surreptitious invasion, but without warning or ,retext swooped down upon Georgia, as she had on the other Caucasian Repi Ics, for purposes of conquest and the seizure of the wealth of the notion, and the despoliation of her Christian churches and schools. Priests of high and low degree were stripped of their robes, forced into dirty Soviet uniforms, maltreated and many killed or banished. The Patriarch (Katholi. kos) AmbrosIus was sentenced to 10 years' Imprisonment for the simple crime of having sent a protest against this horror to the League of Nations. The churches were looted and turned into dance halls, the women outraged and children massacred. Thousands were murdered and thousands sent into exile. Others were forced to take refuge in the mountain districts and in foreign countries. Stores and houses were plundered and the railroads and factories robbed of their best equipment. A prosperous and happy country was brought to a state of ruin and forced, against the will of the people, under the merciless and devastating rule of Soviet Communists, sent from Moscow. Soviet hypocrisy was revealed when the Bolshevik official press of Moscow declared that the overthrow of the Georgian Government had not been accomplished by the red army, but by a revolutionary movement from within the Georgian State. In an attempt to Justify her course, an entirely false account of what transpired in the Caucasus was broadcast to the world. Soviet Russia sought to conceal her imperialistic ends by setting up a government in Tiflis composed of red partisans of Georgian nationality, imported from Moscow and long associated with the Communistic State. The Soviet Government, which was forced upon the Georgian people and derived its powers from the strength of the Russian army of occupation, Is not accepted by the Georgian people as their rightful government. Moscow persists in its attempt to "soveltize" these non.Russian democratic peoples.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Except where the red army's garrisons are maintained, and where the Cheka, the Russian inquisition, rules, this violent procedure is not successful. The Cheka-prosecutor, judge, and executioner in one-imposes the death sentence without trial. Thus it is enabled to exert the greatest terror without any re* striction, and it has not desisted from using its powers rigorously. The methods of the Cheka are hardly paralleled in ancient or modern times. The policy employed is one of false accusations, barbaric torture, and terrorism, to wholly break the spirit and morale of the people and reduce them to abject obedience and nonresistance. To quote from an article which appeared in Scrilmer's Magazine, in February, 1925, by Mr. Ellsworth Huntington, called "The Suicide of Russia". "Here are some interesting statistics from the London Times of September 1, 1922. A dispatch from Riga states that, according to official Bolshevist figures, the tribunal known as the Cheka executed 1,766,118 persons before being renamed the supreme political administration, in February, 1922. All those people were done to death in a period of less than five years. Many more have been executed since. The total, as printed in the Times, Includes 6,675 professors and teachers, 8,800 doctors, 355,250 other intellectuals. Besides this, there were 1,243 priests, 54,650 officers, and 12,950 landowners. This makes something like 440,000 persons, all of whom belonged to the upper classes. A large part of these, by right of birth or ability, had made themselves influential leaders. The rest of those executed comprised 59,000 policemen, 192,350 workmen, 260,000 soldiers, and 815,000 peasants." Since the occupation of Georgia in 1921, the Cheka has continued its terrorism there, maintaining its headquarters in Tiflis and having its agents throughout Caucasla. The Georgians abhor Bolshevism, but as the Commun!sts' press dominates and their own press and language is permitted for propaganda only, they are unable to express their real feelings openly. They will, it is certain, never accept the communistic ideals of Moscow nor submit to the rule of the Soviets. The general discontent and opposition of the population against Moscow's method of governing by terror and the Cheka became so strong that the government in Moscow has tried to mislead the outside world and appease its criticism by granting formal autonomy to the Caucasian States by permitting them to establish a Transcaucasian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic by an agreement signed March 12, 1922. This federation includes the "Soviet Republics" of Azerbaidjan, Armenia, and Georgia, and is a member of the Union of Soviet Republics. According to the constitution of this Union of Socialist Soviet Republics of July 6, 1923 (see Appendix 9), each united republic retains the right of free withdrawal from the union (chap. II, 4). This was the pretense of freedom that was inserted to deceive the people ard fool the world. Its true meaning was illustrated when, in September and October, 1924, Georgia attempted to exercise thiO right and regain her independence.. Her movement was stamped is a revolt. This upri ig revealed for a short time to the outside world the real situation in Transcaucasia. Tile attempt on the part of the Georgians was the spontaneous outburst of a suppressed and suffering nation. Though it failed, it gave notice to the world that the Georgian people dd not accept the Soviet rule. The Georgian people have demon. strated that they will itevcr peacefully submit to the red ",goernment by assassination." The uprising of 1924 was suppressed with all the savageries and inhumanities characteristic of Cheka rule. Among others, the metropolitan of the Georgian Church, Nazaril, was murdered at Kutais. Women and children of the soldiers fighting in the mountains were used as shields by the Bolsheviks (luring their attacks. Even Lloyd-George raised his voice against the Bolsheviks. Ile emphatically denounced the Russian atrocities In Georgia. In a special cable to the New York American on December 13, 1924, he said "Today," alluding to the bloodshed in Georgia. it i, a red ]lroviv(e in more senses than one." It is almost impossible to state accurately the number of Georgians killed by the invading red army and murdered by the Cheka army of occupation. In the New York Evening Sun of January 1, 1925, we read that"In the last six months the Georgians have been deprived of personal and national liberty, their Industries have been destroyed, and according to recent official reports nearly 4,000 of their people have been executed by Moscow's
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OP GEOIGIA * * * The Georgians revolted against the Soviet exactions, but orders. instead of winning a hearing in Maocow. as they demanded, they were arrested wholesale on the charge of disloyalty and tried, not by their own courts and judges but by Moscow tribunals on evidence furnished by the Soviet's own It is the results of these trials that have secret police and political spie. Just been made known to the world and that have furnished such a complete revelation of Moscow's understanding of the meaning of a Soviet autonomous * " republic. * And in the New York Times of March 31, 1925, there appeared the following wireless communication from Constantinople: "CONSTANINOPLE, March 30.-An American observer who has just arrived from Georgia says the Soviet regime has become much stiffer there since the revolution last autumn. The population lives in terror of the Cheka and mutual suspicion characterizes the whole national atmosphere. "According to local estimates the number of counterrevolutionaries executed after the autumn revolt was between 3,000 and 4,000. The Cheka carries out now continual arrests for any or no reason. "The people as well as the administration are now living on their capital. There is no production. Private trade is still prohibited so as to prevent the noncommunist classes getting economic power which would again threaten the political power of the communists. "Food, clothing, and other necessities are enormously dear. A pair of shoes same boat as the costs $225. A Georgian traveler who left Batun on tile American was able to sell an ordinary second-hand suit for $180. Thb impression left by the general economic and political conditions of the country was that this system of minority rule was making straight for a crash." The most authentic information we have on this subject is front Mr. David Mdivanl, who is a cousin of Mir. Polycarpe (B, udoui Mdlvanl, an imported Georgian communist front Mosco.w. who was sent. ainong others, to head the 1921, who is now attached Georgit ill Russian Cheka Army of o'vtutti in ill to the embassy of Soviet Itus ia in Paris (see Appendix No. S. list of members of Diplomatic Corps). and with whom Mr. David Mdivani and his family are In friendly relationship and constant communication." In an interview given in Houston, Tex., on November 13, 1924, Mr. David Mdivanl made the following statement: "Determined to force the little State. of such strategic and economic value. Into submission to its rule. (lie red government is resorting to methods of cold-blooded butchery. At lea'4 20.(0( Georgians have been slaughtered without trials. A shipload of native- was taken oat on the ('aspian Sea and tile vessel sunk. with none rescued. Others are called to their doors and shot down. Rigorous censorship Is in effect." ir. Karl Kautsky. in his honk oi Georgia already mentioned above (p. 9. Appendix No. 11). says. "Tile small country was hedged In by a Itusslan red army, which numbered 120.04) nien. and plundered to the utmost extent; as a subjugated territory. Georgia suffered more severely fromi the dominant ion of bolchevism than unhappy Russia Itself." And Prof. Gilbert Murray, the British delegate. in his speech before tle fifth assembly of the Leagiie of Nations on September 25. 1921. very accurately sumnued up tie characteristic of Cheka rule in Georgia by two words. "wholesale slaughter." In spite of Georgia's content invasion by- Soviet Russia, however, ani the almost complete suppression of her self-determination, the authority of the Government of Soviet Russia as regards Georgia was never recognized by tile great powers of Europe. In the pamphlet. "Georgia. Russia, and the League of Nations" (see Appendix No. 11) under a subheading called "The recogidtion of the Soviets and the reservations made in favor of Georgia" (p. 12). Prof. Edgard Milhaud. of the University of Geneva, says: "lhere is tlp very text of the recognition of Great Britain. In February. 1924. Mr. Ramsey MacDonald, Prine Minister of Great Britain. in hi. note transmitted to the government of Moscow. says. among other things. that tile Government of llts Brittanie 3Majesty-theve are the very words of this document---' Recognizes the Union of Soclalls't Soviet Republics, as being the de Jure government of those territories (if Ce ancient Russian Fmpire which recognize its authority.' 'To which Maj. Henry G. Opdycke can testify having investigated this matter In Parts
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OEORGIA
53
"It is clear that in February, 1924. Georgia did not recognize the authority of Soviet Russia, since, a short time later, took place the uprising to which I have just referred. "As to France, it was at the end of the year 1924 that she accorded her recognition. To state precisely, it would not be amiss to call attention to the fact that Mr. Herriot, who was to sign the act of recognition had, three years before, questioned the head of the Government at that time as to the attitude of France relative to the recognition of Georgia. Addressing himself to Mr. Poincar6, he had said: "'The precise question which I set is the following: The sovereignty of Georgia has been formally recognized by the Russian Government itself by virtue of a very precise treaty. I ask Mr. President of the council to be good enough to declare that his Government remains attached to the cause of this independence. Speaking in the name of France, who has asked for the independence of Poland and the Czechs, he will permit us to send forth a hope to an oppressed, unhappy people.' "And Mr. Poincard replied: "' The Hoji. Mr. Herriot has but expressed the thought of the government Itself, such as it has already many times been expressed to the State of Georgia. This government possesses besides a representative in Paris, and this representative has access to the ministry of foreign affairs.' "It is essential to remember that today, in its relations with the representative of the Government of Georgia, the French Government acts in exactly the same manner as with the representative, -f any other of the powers whose political situation is the most completely stable. To-day the representa. tive of Georgia enters the Elysge o- t."e Qual d'Orsay on a footing of equality with the juridically recognized representative of the Republic of the Soviets. Therefore, was it not natural that Mr. Herriot, in recognizing the Russian Government, should make a reservation of :htch the terms are as follows: "'* * * the Government of the Republic * * * recognizes de jure, from this day, the Government of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as the government of those territories of the ancient Russian Empire, where Its authority is accepted by the inhabitants * * *.' "We read also in this document these words: 'In notifying you of this 'recognition, which would not affect any of the engagements undertaken or treaties signed by France * * *.' It is evident that the words 'engagements undertaken' refer to the recognition of Georgia by the French Government. "A, to Belgium. she has not yet recognized Soviet Russia, and she has not recognized her for a reason which is about to be indicated, because her policy consists in making of the recognition not the point of departure of negotiations with this country but the point of arrival. Negotiations first: recognition afterwards. Here are the words that Vandervelde, minister of foreign affairss of the Belgians, pronounced on this question July 17, 1925, at the House of Representatives: "' I wish to make a reply immediately to what Mr. Brunfait has just said, when he thinks to find a contradiction between my previous attitude and the speech which. as Minister of Foreign Affairs. I made in a preceding debate. I have for a long time advocated the recognition of the Republic of the Soviets, because I consider that it is Impossible for Belgium to remain indefinitely apart from the governments which have recognized this republic. I have added and(1 maintain that, to express the thought of the government, I this recognition should not be the preface, but should be the termination of an accord from the economic and political point of view. I have indicated, further, that this termination is possible only in consideration of certain conditions "sine qua non." I "Which were these conditions? One, cf economic order, concerned the restitution of the property belonging to Belgians in Russia; the other, m1nentioned in the first place, was thus formulated: "'Firstly, the reservation of the rights 'if governments, like Armenia and Georgia, which have been recognized de Jure by Belgium. This is what France did when she recognized the Republic of the Soviets.' "Thus it can be seen that we find ourselves in the presence of a concurrence of evidence and international juridical documents of an exceptional value, establishing the Intangible right of Georgia." The situation of the Georgian Republic is analogous to that of Belgium during the great war. Georgia Is overrun by a foreign military force which
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA it is not yet strong enough to eject. Its government is compelled to take refuge In France, as was the Belgian Government, and as other governments in times of duress have been obliged to seek temporary hospitality in foreign friendly countries. But this exigency did not impair its constitutional rights or its international status. The Georgian Government, sitting in Paris, continues to fulfill the authority which it holds from the constituent assembly and the pledge which it took toward its people, in defending the interests of this people before the great powers of the world. The Government of independent Georgia in Paris maintains absolute authority over that part of Georgia in the Caucasus Mountains which has never yet been invaded by the Soviets and is not and never was under their physical control, and receives frequent and regular communications from those Georgians. The Georgian Government constantly and consistently protests internationally every detrimental political act of the Soviet Government against Georgia-and pronounces to the world her determination to refuse to recognize the acts of the Soviet Government in granting concessions to foreign persons for the exploitation of its natural resources, including oil, manganese, etc. In this connection your attention is respectfully invited to the protest against the Soviet concessions for Georgian manganese, granted to Harriman & Co., which was sent to United States Ambassador Herrick December 5, 1925, with the request that it be forwarded to the United States Government, and in which protest they in no uncertain terms declare these concessions null and void. (See Appendix No. 12; see also Appendix No. 17, protest to State Department at Washington.) The Georgian Government likewise is in constant communication with its people throughout the entire area of Georgia, encouraging them to await patiently their hour of deliverance, and strengthening the hope of their people that a time will come when their freedom will be restored by peaceful means, as promised them by great powers of Europe, in a resolution passed and repassed by the League of Nations on September 212, 19*22, and September 25. 1924, respectively, as follows (see Appendix No. 13. "Verbatim report of the fifth assembly of the League of Nations. September 25. 1924) : "The assembly invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means In accordance with the rules of international law." To-day the torch of liberty flickers in Georgia, but the soul of nationality and the reverence for religion survive. The people of Georgia are implacable foes of Bolshevism, and its twin fury, Communism, but the arm of the murderous Cheka holds them in bondage. As long as the bayonet of Soviet tussia is pressed against their hearts they must bow to the dictatorship of Moscow. and submit to the impositions of a military terrorism, or become the victims of the ,torture chamber or death. But all constitutional parties of the Georgian people are represented in a "committee of independence" in Paris, to demonstrate their rejection of the Soviet rule in their country and to signalize their support of the exiled government. Karl Kautsky, In his book already mentioned above, very aptly expresses the firm belief of the Georgian National Government and the hope with which it constantly heartens its people. when he says: "The dictatorship of the Moscow tyrant, cian not become permanent In Georgia any more than In Russia itself. The Georgian people have survived many barbarous invasions; they will survive the devastation of the Red Army and the horrors of the extraordinary commissions. In Russia. and consequently in Georgia, too, democracy must eventually triumph again" (p. 0). In pleading with ithe people of the United States of America, through their Government at Washington, to sympathize with the right of the people of the Republic of Georgia to be free an independent and to enjoy themselves in "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," the people of Georgia are not striving to do a new thing; for no people fighting for freedom from tyranny for the last 140 years has failed to lay their case before the people the the United States and to seek from them sympathy and support. Precedents in this respect are so numerous in the history of the American Congress as to need only a casual reference to the attitude of the people of the United States of America, expressed through their government, towards, for instance, Greece, Mexico, and the South and Central American Republics. Hence in the face of these illustrious precedents, It is but natural that the people of Georgia should lay their case before the American people and their
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA'
55
representatives In the Congress and plead with both for a formal, authorltive expression of sympathy and good will. As to the mention made by the Hon. Mr. Connally of the speech of the Hon. Edward C. Little, of Kansas, In the House of Representatives, December 17, 1921 (Appendix No. 16), on the situation of Armenia, the status of the transcaucasian isthmus is so inextricably intertw!ned among the countries of Georgia, Azerbaidjan, North Caucasus, and Armenia, that it may be pertinent in considering this speech, to qi'ote from that masterly address in elucidation of this general situation: "America should now definitely inform Russia that before our republic opens up negotiations of friendly relations, Russia should show her respect for the rights of other nations by withdrawing her Invading troops from Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and Daghestan (North Caucasia). Then, those peoples will reestablish their local governments and law and order will be maintained there." In order to explain the connection which exists between the republics of the Caucasus, it would, perhaps, be well to say a few words about these Republics, Azerbaidjan and North Caucasia, which, with Georgia, are combined in a confederation, functioning in Paris. While the people of the Caucasus are ethnologically of different races, they are bound by economic and political interests and geographical isolation. The Christian population of Georgia and Armenia had long ceased to be antagonistic to the Mohammedan peoples of Azerbatdjan and North Caucasia. The Republic of Azerbaidjan has an area of approximately the same size as that of Georgia and a population of some four and a half millions, of which one million are Christians. Azerbaidjan was the first country in the world of Mohammedan faith to have established a democratic form of government. Azerbaidjan, during the Middle Ages, was the battle field of Turks, Arabs, Persians, and nomadic tribes from the east. The new nation that has developed from the intermingling of all these different elements, with a preponderance of Mongols and Turks, Is known as the Tatars. "They have," says the Italian historian, VUlarl, in his Fire and Sword in the Caucasus, "a dignity of bearing and a charm of mariner which endear them to all who come in contact with them." After a period of some hundred years of Turkish, and later, Persian, domination, the Tatars, having definitely settled at the southwestern shores of the Caspain Sea and along the Caucasian River Kura, came under the rule of Russia, which by the treaty of 1813 acquired the territory from Persia. More than a hundred years of Russian overlordship, however, did not suffice to extinguish the strong tendency for national self-determination that was revealed after the outbreak of the revolution of 1917, and led to the union with the other Transcaucasian States. On May 28, 1918, Azerbaidjan declared her independence and on January 12, 1920, her Independence was recognized de facto by the supreme council of the great powers. Azerbaidjan, of course, is best known to Americans for its Immense oil fields at Baku, second only to the United States in world oil production. As to that which concerns the Republic of North Caucasla, its area Is approximately 150,000 square kilometers, and it has a population of some 4,000,000 inhabitants, of which about 1,000,000 are Christians. Their system of government is the ielvetian. This people had for nearly 55 years fought fiercely for their independence when at the beginning of the nineteenth century Russia tried to include the Caucasus in its domains. Toward the middle of the century these mountaineers of North Caucasus were conquered by the Russians. The conquest was made possible only by the fact that Russia had previously established a strategic basis in Georgia through its annexation. Their form of government, according to the accounts of British and other travelers who in the middle of the last century visited the Caucasu.;, waR a 'species of aristocratic republic, composed of chiefs, nobles, and clansmen, In whom rank Is only recognized in their public and patriarchal capacity, as chieftains, law-givers, and elders," while otherwise a perfect equality existed in ail the relations of social and domestic life. The mountaineers were never assimilated by the Russian conquerors, but preserved their nationality iII the face of all attempts of Russiflention. In May, 1917, they availed themselves of the opportunity which the revolution offered to regain their sovereignty. They set up the independent "Union of the Peoples of the Northern Caucasus" at Viadikavkaz, which was supplanted in December of that year by the "Union
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA of Mountaineers." Their sympnthles for the Transcaucaslans did not lead to a formal union. Internal difficulties with Bolshevik elements and General Denikin',i attack, which finally in March, 1919, destroyed the Union of the Mountaireers, prevented It from effective cooperation with the Transcaucasian Republics. Later, however, In Paris, in a Joint declaration of June 10, 1921, the exIsting high officials and delegates of the four Caucasian Republics, Including the heads of the delegations from Armenia, Azerbaidjan, northern Caucasus, and the minister to France for Georgia in Paris, entered into a defensive and economic union. The declaration was sent to all the great powers and the League of Nations, which body protested against Soviet Russia's oppression of these small nations. The full text of this declaration Is given in Appendix No. 14. For fuller details of the situation of these Republics with relation to each
other see "The Caucasian Republics" (Appendix oo. 13).
Mr. MooRE.. of Virginia. You have stated about these being highly educated people. Have they had a university in operation a long time?
Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes.
Mr. MooRE of Virginia. At Tiflis? Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes; and several colleges and a great number of grammer schools and public schools throughout the country. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. The student body at Tiflis was about what? Mr. DUMBADZE. 1920 to 1921 more than 2,000 in Tiflis. There were several high "schools of university type, and a Georgia State University of more than 2,000 students. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. I am talking about this university. Mr. DumBADZE. Two thousand. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. A high-class university. Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Mr. MOORE of Vi.rg:.ilia. Among other things they were conducting explorations into prehistoric Georgia? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. A professor of our university, Professor Djavakhoff, just discovered a so-called palympsest, of 2,000 pages, of the fifth century, containing parts of the Holy Scriptures which were formerly attributed to the ninth century. Mr. STEWART. That relates to Biblical texts which date back to the fifth and sixth centuries, and that is being translated slowly. There is a very eminent and wealthy man in New York who is considering the matter of furnishing the funds for a complete translation. Enough of the text has teen translated, however, to show there is some differentiation from the accepted text in our own Bible. The scholars of Georgia, who stand very high in the estimation of German, French, and England scholarship, believe that the translation of these documents will mean the reaching of an understanding of the Scriptures that we do not have to-day. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. Have those leading professors been re tained by the Soviet Government at the university, or are they in exile? Mr. SIMWART. That is one phase of Georgian life the Soviet Government has not interfered with. They have permitted the university to continue its work. Mr: CooPER. What was the name of that professor you mentioned? Mr. DuiMADZE. Professor Djavakoff.
NATIONAL REIPU3LIC OF GEORGIA
Mr. COOPER. When did he discover that?
Mr. DUMBADZE. Last two years: 1923. Mr. CooPz. Under the present government? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Mr. CooPER. The present government has not interfered at all with his work? Mr. DUMBADZE. The present government does not interfere, neither do they help or provide funds for this important work. Mr. COOPER. When was this university created or organized? Mr. DUMBIADZE. During our independence from 1918. Mr. COOPER. It was begun in 1918? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. During the czaristie Russian regime, we were not permitted to haVe our university or high schools in Tiflis. Mr. COOPER. When was the University of Tiflis founded? Mr. DUMBADZE. 1918. The policy of the old Russian r 6 ginie was to not allow in Tiflis a university,'and the Georgian students were distributed among the Russian universities at Moscow, Kiev, etc: e Mr. Fisir. Under the soviet r6gie they permitted the university. Mr. DUMBADZE. Not with the kind permission of the soviet but by the parliament of the Georgian people. Mr. Fisit. It is going on now. Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. The soviet needs engineers and technicians, highly educated and professional people who can help them. Mr. FisH. Soviet Russia lets a university operate in Georgia today and in the last four years they have been in power, whereas a number of years prior to the war the old imperial government would not let them operate any kind of a university. Mr. DU.MBADZE. I will explain the policy of Russia, old Russia and new Russia. The Czar did not permit any university in Tiflis, fearing concentration of educated patriotic youth, but our independent government now sitting in Paris. in pairliament created this university. I will 'tell you two or three professors who are in exile, namely, Profs. MI. Saretelli and A2valloff. Many may be killed to-night or to-morrow: because there is no court or'justice, and how can I give statistics about people there? They abolished the churches and turned them into dance halls, and the university is staying there; but how long? I don't know. Mr. FisH. It is there ?
Mr. DumB.%DZE.. It is still there.
The CHAIRIAN. After Georgia became a Republic and was recognized as such by Russia, the (eorgian Republic built this university? Mr: DUM.BADZE. Yes. The CHAIRM.A.N. When the Bolsheviks camie in four years ago they allowed the university to continue, with certain restrictions, which you have mentioned; is that correct? Mr. DUM.BIADZ,. Yes; wvith restrictions. I can not tell you how manv of them were killed. The soviet Russian policy is to have people who can not read and write: no support is given to the university by the soviet regilne, so a professor wrote me. lie also wrote they have not enough money to translate the 2,000 page palynipsest.
The CHAIRMAN. Mr. Stewart, I notice the name of John Hays Hammond on the board of directors of this Caucasian Society. Is that the John Hays Hammond who was active in the Transvaal prior to the Boer War? Mr. SmzwArr. Yes; he lives here in Washington. The CHAIRMAN. You have in Georgia oil, copper, and manganese Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; and tremendous water power. The CHAIRMAN. Oil has been developed at Baku? Mr. DUMBADZE. A big source of oil has been developed in Baku, in Azerbaidjan, and is well known on the market, but this oil does not belong to Georgia; one pipe line from Baku runs through Georgia to the shipping point on the Black Sea-Batoum. The CHAIRMAN. Where are the oil dep6sits in Georgia? Mr. DutMDADZE. In the district of Tiflis and also near the Black Sea coast of Georgia. The CHAIRMAN. Is that near where the Garden of Eden was supposed to be? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; that is the place, but the oil has not been developed as yet. The CnAIR31AN. Old Adam was lucky oil was not discovered in the Garden of Eden, or he would have been evicted by exploiters. Mr. FMRcmLD. You stated that there were Georgians in the mountains who had never been conquered and who are still maintaining their independence on Georgia's soil. Has anyone connected with the Government of Georgia at Paris ever succeeded in getting any communication through to those men? Mr. DU31BADZE. Yes; we get communications continually. Mr. FAIRCHILD. So there is this situation, that there are Georgians who have never been conquered who are in possession of part of the soil of Georgia and who are in communication with the Government of Georgia in Paris?
Mr.
DUMBADZE.
Yes.
Mr. MARTt.. They are not organized in any way? Mr. DUMBADZE. They are natural soldiers; in these mountains they are always organized. Mr. FAIRCIILD. Their government is in Paris?
Mr.
Mr. Fisit. They have not been conquered for over 125 years. They
are the same people who have been opposing Russia for 125 years up in the mountains. They live on the tops of these mountains, these Georgians who have not been conquered? Mr. .) U BADZE. Georgia never was conquered by Russia. The Georgian Government lcft Georgia when betrayed and invaded by the soviets and Tuikcs. Mr. Fisu. You and I differ about the wording. Mr. Du.JILN.,zr. That is the legal side of this matter. Georgia never had war with old Russia. 1801.signed a treaty with Russia in We 1783, which was violated later in Mr. Fisii. For 125 years the Russian Imperial Government had control through their representatives, but these mountaineers have always been in rebellion all the time?
DUMBADZE.
Yes.
Mr. DUMBADZZE. Yes. Many protests were made during that time.
Mr. FISH. Your biggest industry is oilI Mr. DUM1BADZE. No. Oil is not a big industry in Georgia. Manganese tobacco, silk cocoons, copper, etc. Mr. FAIRCHILD. These unconquered soldiers in the mountains have a military organization? Do they have their own officers? Mr. DU BADZE. They are natural soldiers, organized, taking action against Soviet Russia. When really out of patience, in 1924, they were patient, but when the soviet Tcheka killed hundreds and thousands of our people, the best people of Georgia, women and children, many of them, they had to take action. Mr. FAIRCHILD. Do they have officers who give them orders?
Mr.
Mr.
Mr. Mr.
to send a communication to them, there are leaders they pick out to send communications to?
DUmBADZE. Officers of regiments? MOORE of Virginia. They have leaders? DUMBADZE. Yes; chief men. FAIRCHILD. When the Government of Georgia
in Paris wants
Mr. DMBADZE. Yes.
Mr. CooPER. The witness ought to testify what he knows himself, because he does know it. Mr. VAILE. It is difficult for the witness to understand. Mr. COOPR. I do not think it is proper while he is testifying for others to make side remarks; if he does not understand, let him say so. He ought to be allowed to express his own ideas in his own way. While he was answering a question he thinks he understands, this other witness was prompting him. Mr. VAILE. We are talking with the gentleman and want him to give his honest opinions. Mr. FAIRCHILD. I asked a question for information; and if he does not know or understand my question, if that information occurs to any of the other witnesses, I will be very glad to have it. He represents the Georgians here. Mr. CooPER. What Mr. Fairchild said puts me in an unfair attitude. I want the facts-the truth. Mr. Fairchild asked a question, and he says he wants the truth. The witness proceeds to answer. He knows this witness knows more about matters than anyone else in the room, and while he is answering and talking the man at his side is all of the time whispering and prompting him. That is not fair, and Mr. Fairchild, endeavoring to elicit truth, would not get it first-hand from this witness; he would get it from the promptings of another man; and while they may do this innocently, I do not think it the best way for a witness to testify. Mr. FIsIr. Is there any army in the field to-day in Georgia against the Soviet GovernmentT Mr. DUMBADZE. The whole population of Georgia is against Soviet Russia. That is my answer. Mr. MOORE of Virginia. I will follow up Mr. Fairchild's question with one question to make a point clear. I understood you or some. body to say that these mountaineers, while they are not organized in
the sense that armies are organized in other countries, do have their leaders or chieftains. Is that correct? Mr. DuMsBADZE. Correct. Mr. MooRa of Virginia. And your Government does have means of getting in communication with these leaders or chieftains? Mr. DUMBADZE. Correct. Mr. Ews. Do they maintain schools up there in the mountains, these unconquered 10 per cent? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; they maintain schools. Mr. Euis. They maintain public schools of their own appointment and support them? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Mr. ELLis. Have they an organization for that purpose? Mr. DUwBADZE. Yes. Mr. MARTIN. Who pays for the support of the schools? Mr. DUMBADZE. The peasants, the population. Mr. MAWFIN. Do they pay it direct or into the Soviet Government and they later disburse'if? Mr. DUMBADZE. NO. How much anybody pays to the soviet? The Soviet Government is taking from our people everything they have. The CHAIRMAN. The inquiry is about schools in the mountain fastnesses where they still preserve their liberty. Who supports the schools in the mountains occupied by that 10 per cent who still resist the Soviet Government? Mr. DU.1BADZE. Tile population in the mountains. Mr. Fisn. Might not this develop into a serious thing for the Georgians? There is no fighting to-day against the soviet r~gim6 in Georgia, between the mouintaineers and soviet troops, if there are soviet troops there now. The louse Committee on Foreign Affairs, undertaking to hold hearings on this question, and you come before it and have made the statement that there are leaders there of armed forces, would it be possible that the Soviet Government would go out . and destroy those forces? Mr. Dt'MBAZ)z. They are trying to destroy them, anyhow. Mr. Fisir. There is no war going on to-day. Mr. DUMBADZE. It is not war but the action of the Soviet Government. The CITAlItM1AN. Russia has been trying to conquer these mountaineers for two or three centuries, a war on during all that entire time. M|r. EATON . It will not start because we are having these committee meetings. The CHAIrurA-. -NO. These people are up in the mountains. Mr. Fisit. There is a sort of armistice now; no actual warfare. lMr. DUMfBADZE. There is no real declai'ed war, but systematic resistance of people; whoever can resist is resisting. Mr. CooPEit. I see in this pamphlet, "Georgia at the end of the eighteenth century allied herself with Russia with the stipulation that the latter shotl protect her against enemies from without." Those enemies from without were the Turks?
01
Mr. IUMBADZE. Turks and Persians; and as Georgia felt helpless against these enemies at that time she allied herself with Russia for a term of 100 years for protection, and that protection was not accorded her during the Czar's regime, up to the revolution in 1917. Mr. VAILE. Not helpless, but needing help. Mr. COOPER. Did not Russia protect her from enemies from without? If so, there was no attempt by Russia during 100 years to conouer Georgia, because they were in alliance under the condition that Russia should protect her from the Turks. That being so, were these men in the mountains fighting anybody during that time? Mr. Du.iBADZE. No; the Turks and Persians invaded Georgia periodically when at war with each other, and Georgia fought always with Russia against the Turks. Mr. COOrR. But not the Russians. Mr. DUMBADZE. Since the Greeks fell in the hands of the Turks in 1483, Georgia was cut off from the Christian world, therefore it was necessary for them to ally themselves with Russia, a nation of the same religion as Georgia. They were Russians. When Russia signed the agreement of mutual friendship with Georgian Government, they assumed certain obligations and pledged themselves to keep such and such regiments in Georgia, but whathappened? How Russia violated this treaty is wonderfully shown in Dr. E. J. Dillon's book, "The Eclipse of Russia," if Mr. Stewart will quote this. Mr. STEWART.
It is on page 225 of this book:
Bulgaria was not methodically " protected "'in the special sense of the term. Frank Russian diplomats were wo-it to explain that chapter of Russian history thus: "We have only two ways of dealing with weaker nations, and they are exemplified in our treatment of Georgia and Bulgaria."
And further:
The Kingdom of Georgia came to us and asked for an alliance. We made it. Some time afterwards the Georgians fell upon evil days. Being attacked by Persia, they claimed our active help as equals and allies. But we answered that we were too busy elsewhere and left them to their fate. Thereupon the Persians fell upon them and killed two men out of every three, so that the nation was literally bleeding to death. Then the Georgians came to us a second time, now no longer as equals and allies, but as humble suppliants. "Help us," they said, "Not as friends aid friends, but as masters rescue their slaves." And this time we helped them effectually and absorbed their country over and aboiL-.
Mr. Fis. A while ago you implied, at least, that Georgia was a republic under the Czar, or was a sovereign government under the Czar. Mr. STEWART. Not sovereign government. Georgia was violated. Mr. FIsH. Over 100 years ago. Mr. DUMBADZE. 1801. Mr. Fisif. It has been under Russia for 125 years. Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes; but always under protest. Even England and France have protested many times, but in vain. Mr. COOPER. Do you think England and France-their capitalists--were after the manganese and other natural resources in Georgia? 3r. DUMBADZE. No; a pure humanitarian proposition, objecting against violation of a treaty.
a2
Mr. FiSu. I have a wrong impression from what the witness said. I understood the witness to say under the Czar's government that Georgia was practically independent I
Mr. DOMBADZ. No.
Mr. FisH. It now turns out that for 125 years they were under the government of the old Imperial Russian Government; they were a subject nation. Wr. OPDyci. Except, Mr. Fish, the Government was operating under a vice-royalty, gut always objecting to physical control. Mr. Fisu. It was brought out they could not even operate a university in their own city. Mr. OPDncrx. No, sir; that is not a fact. The fact is the Russian Government would not permit the university to be there in that place and it was not until the Georgians got their independence and the moment they did, they established this university which is working nowi because it is a well known fact that the Soviet try by every means possible to get technicians into Russia. Mr. FIsH. I have been in Russia several times, and I know -t was the policy of the Russian Government under the Czir not to permit education, whether in Georgia or Russia. As I see it the Georgian people have had this alliance with Russia for a long time, and when the war occurred like Poland, Czechoslovakia and others, they secured their independence, or that is what they attempted to do. The militia of the Bolshevist Government came in later and took possession. Mr. Coorr.a I will ask you this question: The government which was, after the Russian revolution, established in Georgia was what was called the menshevist government? Mr. DUMBADZE. Yes. Mr. CooPER. That was socialistic, too? Mr. DubBAuZE. Social democratic, with all politial parties except communists cooperating. Mr. CooPER. And they were opposed by the Bolshevists. During the years that the Menshevists or Social Democratic Party was in control there were six revolutions-fighting among themselves? Mr. DUMBADZE. Six revolutions where? Mr. CooPEn. Six outbreaks, and killing among themselves. Mr. DUMBAwzE. No, sir; that is not a fact. I object to that; it was not so. Mr. Coonn. I mean in Georgia. Mr. DUMBADZE. No; not at all. In Georgia there was an invasion by Bolshevists and Turks, and then in 1924 Georgia again rebelled against Soviet Russia; that is two. Mr. CooPFm. Do you say that there were no revolutions and no violence, no factional quarrels, between the various people and against the Governmentl Mr. DUxiBADZE. Not in Georgia. The Bolshevist invasion and the 1924 rebellion were the only ones. What we are doing is to escape from the Bolshevist terror. Mr. CooPER. About the men up in the hills, Judge Moore said they have leaders, but they are not organized as we know organiza-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA "
tion when applied to armies, not organized into regiments and brigades; it is a XA of men fighting, to use the American expression, on their own hook. I do not want to say anything unkind, because I have deep sympathy for the Georgian people; but while considering their situation I owe a duty also to my own Government. I want to do what I think is right after all the ?acts are before us. In this country if a lot of men in the mountains were fighting in that way, they would be called "guerillas" and their warfare a "guerilla warfare." They are unorganized. Is that not so? Mr. DuMBADZE. It is not quite so, because those mountaineers are natural fighters, and are organized under chiefs. Mr. COOPER. They are natural soldiers. I do not doubt their bravery. Mr. DuiMRADZE.. They are natural fighters. Mr. Fisn. They have been fighting for 125 years. Mr. Du.tMBADZE. One thousand seven hundred years or more. Mr. EATON. They have not been fighting against their own government. Mr. Fisti. Naturally, I think everybody sympathizes with the Georgians, but there'are other countries involved. Mr. Stewart would you have any objection if I should offer an amendment, iU this resolution ever comes to a vote, to include recognition of Montenegro, which has maintained its independence for 500 years? I am asking a very proper question. It maintained its independence 500 years and fought with the Allies. Mr. VALE. What has this witness to say about that? It is for the committee. Mr.. Fisu. I want to bring out that point. Mr. STEWART. I am here as a friend of the Georgians. For 18 or 19 years my spare time has been engaged in such work as this, which has been given to the public, and I receive no emoluments or pay from it. Nobody has ever paid me for any work of this kind. I have no object other than that of service. I am interested as everybody must be in the fight for existence of little countries. I think they have their rights and great countries should support, them in the possession of their rights. So far as any amendment to this resolution offered by Mr. Moore is concerned, I will say only that I sympathize with all little countries fighting to gain or maintain their liberties. Mr. COOPER. You are an engineer? Mr. OPDYCKE. Yes. Mr. COOPER. How long were you in Russia? Mr. 0PDYcKiE. I was in Russia several times; probably several months altogether. Mr. COOPER. When were you last in Russia? Mr. OPDYCKE. 1914. Mr. COOPER. For what purpose? Were you in the Caucasus? Mr. OPDYCKE. No; in the Crimea. Mr. COOPER. You have never been in Georgia?
Mr. OPDYCKE. No. 90153-26--5
64
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROA
Mr. COOPER. What were you doing in Russia? Mr. OPDYCKE. I was in Russia furthering the organization of Oni American-Russian Bank, behind which was a company of engineers, for the development of the region's natural resources. Mr. CooPEa. You say that you saw dispatches received-where? Mr. OPDYCKE. In Paris. That is where the conversation referred to took place regarding the communication between the Government in Paris and these people in Georgia. Mr. COOPER. Did you receive any of the communications? Mr. OPDYCKE. I was not representing the Georgians. Mr. CooPER. When was this? Mr. OPDYCKE. In 1924 the last time referred to particularly. (Thereupon, at 12.05 o'clock p. m., the committee adjourned to meet again at the call of the chairman.)
APPENDIXES No. 1. Mineral Resources of Georgia and Caucasla, by D. Ghambashldze, F. R. G. S. 2. Treaty concluded 1783 between Catherine I, Empress of Russia, and Irakly II, King of Georgia. (Collection of Russian Laws, Vol. XXI, No. i&35.) With preface by Mr. Paul Morinud, professor of the faculty of law of the University of Geneva, and comments by Mr. A. Okoumelt-Geneva, 1919. (Translation from the French.) 3. The Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia, by Prince Ilamaz Dadeshkeliani. Article published in The Christian East. (July, 1922, Vol. IIIN. 2, and October, 1922, Vol. III N. 3; Loudon.) 1922. 4. Constitution of Georgia, adopted by the Constituent Assembly February 22, 1921. (Translation from the French.) Russian Socialist Soviet Federative Republic. 0. Excerpts from "Documents Relative to the Question of Georgia Before the League of Nations." Edition of the Georgian Legation in France. Paris, 1025. (Translation from the French.) Also "Note from the Delegate of the National Government of Georgia to the Council of the League of Nations "-relevant to the above. 7. The Constitution of the Union of Socialist Soviet Ro-publics. Published by the Russian Information Bureau, Washington, D. C. 1924. 8. List of Members of the Diplomatic Corps In the Order of Delivery or Credentials. December 25, 1925. (Translation from the French.) 9. Georgia, Russia, and the League of Nations, by Prof. Edgard 3lilhaud. Published under the auspices of the International Committee for
5. Treaty May 7, 1920, between the Democratic Republic of Georgia and the
dinary envoy and plenipotentiary minister of Georgia In France, to Hon. Myron T. Herrick, extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador of the United States of America. 11. Georgla-Impresslons and Observations. by Karl Kaut.ky. I'nblislhed In Lof(lon. 1921. 12. Alliance Between the Republics (if Armenia, Azerbaidjan. North Caucasla, and Georgia, June 10, 1921. 13. The Caucasian Republicz. by Vasill 10. Dunibadzw. general diplomatic and economic representative of the Republics of Georgia, Azerbaidjan. and North Caucasla. (These Republics entered Into a defensive nnd econoile unl,,n with the North Caucasian Republic and Armenia in 1921.) 14. Chronology of Important Events of Georgia. 15. Copy of telegram from lion. Vasili D. Dumnbadze, general diplomatic aiid economic representative of the Republics of Georgia. Azerbaljan. and North Caucasla, to Hon. Frank M. Kellogg, Secretary of State, WashIngton, D. C., dated June 13. 1925. 16. Excerpts from the Speech by lion. Edward C. Little. of Kansas. in the llonso of Representative:. Wedensday, December 17. 1921, on The Situation of Armenia. (Congressional Record. Vol. LXII. Pt. 13.) 17. Sketch map of the Caucasian Republics, showing part of Georgia ceded to Turkey by Bolsheviks. 17a. Also Map of Georgia and Surrounding Territory. 18. The Case of Georgia and Internntionnl Law. and Chronologic.al Sunnary of the Situation in Greece, Th21-1829 in Light ofthe Webster lesollion of December 8, 1923. (Reference: flistorlans' history of the World. Vol. 24.) 19. Reproduction newspaper artile.. New York Times. September 20. 1924. 20. General Ifarhiordfs report: American Military Mission to Armenia. (On board U. S. S. Martha W1'a*hington, October 16. 1919.1
Georgia, Geneva, 1920. (Translation from the French.) 10. Copy of letter dated December 5, 1925, from Hon. A. Tchenkeli, extraor-
66
No. 21. The British Trade-Union Delegation and Georgia. (Publishedl by the Foreign Bitreati of the Social-Democratic Labor Party of Georgia.) 22. Certification of Documents. 23. Ikon of the Archangel Gabriel. An Example of Ancient Georgian Byzantine Enameli!fg of the Eleventh Century. 24. Holy Gospels encased in covers of gold. 25. Tamara, Queen of Georgia A. D. 1184-1212, The Golden Age of Georgia. 28. Sho t'ha Rust'havell, twelfth century Georgian poet. 27. Irakly II, King of Georgia, A. D. 1762-1798. 28. Ketevan, Queen of Gorga in 1624. 29. Nino, the Patron Saint of Georgia. 30. City of Tiflis, Capital of Georgia. 31. First University of Georgia founded by the 'New Independent Georgian Republic; a theater, a street in Tiflis, city ball of Tiflis, and the Peoples House. 32. Svanetla. 33. Mzkhet. 34. The Darlel Pass. 35. Cathedral at Ananur. 36. Borjom, the Hot Springs of Georgia. 37. A Tea Plantat'on in Georgia. 38. Kutais. 39. The River Rion. 40. Certified copy certificate of incorporation of the Caucasian Society of America (Inc.). (Davis, Wagner, Heater & Holton, Equitable Building, New York. 11. Membership list Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), and supplementary statements of endorsement. Respectfully submitted by the Caucasian Society of America (Inc.).
APPENDIX NO. I MINERAL RESOURCES or

GEORGIA AND CAlUCASIA-MANGA NESE INDUSTRY
OF
GEORGIA (By D. Ghambashidze, F. R. G. S., delegate of the Georgian Government)

INTRODUCTION
The Georgians are an ancient civilized race with 3,000 years of existence, but in spite of that very little known, as Georgia since 1801 ceased to be an independent kingdom, was forcibly annexed by the Russian Empire in violation of the treaty of 1783, and was never allowed to make herself known to the outside world. Geography.-Georgia is situated in Transcaucasia, between the Black and the Caspian Seas (400-49 * northern latitude, and 390-47 each of Greenwich). She is separated from the North Caucasus by the celebrated Caucasion mountain chain, which stretches for a distance of a thousand miles from the Black Sea to the Caspian, and has an average height of 10,000 feet and in some places, as In the peaks of the Elbruz and the Kasbek, even 18,000 feet. Georgia comprises the following provinces and districts: Tiflis, Zakathal, Kutais, Sukhum, the narthern part of the Black Sea Province toward Tuapse, Ardahan and Olti districts, provinces of Batum and Lazistan up to Trebizond. The total area of this territory is 43.000 square miles. The frontiers of Georgia are: In the north. the Caucasian mouutain chain; in the east, Aderbeijan; in the south, Armenia: and in the southwest, Turkey. Among the rivers the most prominent are: Kura, 310 miles long; Ingur, 95 miles; Rion, 140 miles; Chorokh, 100 miles; Terek, 210 miles. The climate of Georgia is very similar to that of Italy and Spain. Under the protection of the Caucasian Mountains and with plenty of moisture, there is a rich vegetation, and at a height of 4,000 feet there grow vast forests of oak, beech, chestnut, pines, boxwood, etc. All along the Black Sea shore orange and lemon trees are plentiful; wonderful rhododendrons luxuriate up to a height of $9.400 feet and alpine grasses are met with even at 11,500 feet. On the high mountains there are still to be found bisons, wild goats, hogs. reindeer, antelopes, etc. There are also 400 varieties of birds. The climate and beautiful seenery make Georgia very attractive, the Riviera on the Black Sea. Population.-The total population of Georgia is about 4,000,000, of whom 3,650,000 are of the Christian Greek Orthodox faith and 350.000 Mohammedans. The capital of Georgia Is Titlis. which was founded by the Georgian King, Vakhtang, in thie fifth century. The town has 450,000 inhabitants. Railways and ports.-The total length of railway lines in Georgia is 970 mile.. The trunk line, leading from Batuin through Tifits to Baku on the Caspian Sea, is 550 miles long. The coast line of Georgia along the Black Sea measures 345 miles. The principal ports are: Batum. Poti, Anaklla. Sukhum. Goudaut, and Rlzeh. The port of Batum is the terminus of the Transcaucasian railway line and also of the petroleum pipe-line front Baku to Batum. Batuni is the transit port for the whole of Georgia. Transcaucasia, Turkestan, and Persia. Agrieulture.-The agricultural resources of Georgia are considerable. The following products are grown: Wheat, barley, maize, cotton, rice, tobacco, tea, etc. Wine Is grown very extensively, and its quality is equal to the superior F'ench and Italian varieties. There is also fruit growing on a large scale; specially of oranges, lemons, olives, peaches, plums, pears, apples, and all kinds of vegetables. Among other branches of agriculture silk production and ihekeeping are ancient occupations.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC *OF GEORGIA
The country contains about 12.000,000 heads of domestic animals, and has vast possibilities for cattle breeding. Trade and industry.-The principal ports for the foreign trade of Georgia are Batum and Poti. From 1884 to 1914 the following products were exported to the countries of western Europe from the port of Batum: Petroleum, 22,661,532 tons; manganese ore, 1,676,824 tons (the bulk of this ore was exported from the port of Potl); wool, 99,832 tons; liquorice root, 309,563 tons; grains, 406,265 tons; silk cocoons, 23,451 tons; oil cake, 76,100 tons; tobacco, 2,769 tons; albumen, 7,520 tons; hides, 5.363 tons; lucerne seed, 9,460 tons; salt. 3,50 tons; almonds, 5,692 tons; cotton seed, 40,661 tons; walnut logs and boxwood. 65,053 tons; carpets, 23,800 tons; other articles, 331,998 tons. During the same period the following articles were imported from western Europe into the port of Batum: Tin plate, 526,065 tons; timber, 50,118 tons; bricks and tiles, 113,639 tons; sulphur, 52,857 tons; metals, 106,537 tons; machinery, 45.315 tons; chemicals, 30,392 tons; silkworm eggs. 55 tons; hardware, 58,518 tons; cement, 19,215 tons; tea, 14,986 tons: other articles. 195,066 tons. From 1884 to 1900. 75 per cent of both the export and import trades of this port were controlled by Great Britain, but she was overtaken by Germany, who for the last 10 years before the war controlled 65 per cent, Great Britain only participating with 7 per cent, the other countries being Austro-Hungary, France, Italy, and Turkey. The returns of shipping of all nationalities which entered and cleared in the foreign trade of the port of Batuni from 1893 to 1914 are: Vessels British ............................................................................ 4,287 Tonnage 7,Y2, 320
7.375 4,487,480 Russian............................................................ French ......................................................... 2,02 3. 324, 4S0 1,914 2,271,220 Austro-Ilhingary .................................................................. German ........................................................................... 1,760,250 21,074 Greek ............................................................................ , 272 1,225,345
Belgian ........................................................... Itfli .............................................................
531 C04,720 110 158,80 Norwegian ........................................................................ Dutch ............................................................................ r8 14$, 600 Danish ......................................................................... 125 143,540
647
1,145,390
The traffic of the port of Batum is therefore conlsiderable. It must also be noted that for the 10 pre-wair years the bulk of the German trade with this port was carried in British bottoms. The rettiris of the shipping of all nationalities which entered and cleared in the foreign trade of the port of l'oti (during the same period) are: Vessels
Britsh ... 183
Tonnage
2, 4C0,800
133 24O 0 British ............................................................. Austro-llungarian.......................................... .......... 215 420 000 German ........................................................................... 132 240,820
French ................................................................... 10 2;0,470 Greek .............................................................. . 135 1 , 830 Dutch ................................................................ 40 96,3c0 Italian ................................................................... O 94,400 Norwegian ......................................................... 5 94.820 2e1ian,80,120
20,30 Belgian ............................................................. Spanish ........................................................................... V 20,30
This shipping was exclusively devoted to the export of manganese ore. The industry of Georgia is very small at present, with the exception of that of manganese, petroleum. and copper smelters-one of which belongs to the Caucasus Copper Co. (Ltd.) (British property) ; but there are vast opportunities for building up a huge industry, as raw materials are available in abundance.
69
Rducation--The seat of the Georgian University is Tiflis: it has 35 professore and 1,000 students.' There are also two colleges of the nobility, one in Tiflls and another in Kutais; two theological colleges, 25 grammar schools, 3,000 so-called people's schools, 15 agricultural schools, 18 technical schools, and 28 ladies' needlework and carpet-weaving schools. A considerable number of students receive education annually at the universities and colleges in France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Lieraturean4 the prc8s.--Georgia possesses a very.rich ancient and modern literature, and there are translations of the modern classics of all countries. Nearly all of Shakespeare's dramas are translated Into Georgian. There are about 24 daily papers and weeklies, and about 350 books are published every year in half-million copies. Ninety per cent of the total population of Georgia can read and write, and the many schools and libraries satisfy the eagerness of the people for education. Church.-The Georgian Church Is one of the ancient Eastern Christian churches of the world. It Is second to the Greek Orthodox Church in antiquity. The head of the church is the Catholikos-Patriarch, who is elected by the entire nation. The present Catholikos-Patriarch is Ills Holiness Leonide. The hierarchy includes three metropolitatis--tlie first of Tiflis, the second of Kutals, the third of Chkondidl-and twelve bishops. The Georgian church Is independent from the State and its funds and properties are administered by the laymen's committee, and the clergy is elected by the parishes. Socitic8.-The capital of Georgia-Titits-is the educational, literary, com. inercial, and social center of the country. Many Georgian societies have their bead offices in that city, the most important ones amongst them being: the Georgian Literary Society, withi 35 branches and 20,000 members, this society being chiefly engaged in distributing popular literature amongst the peasants and in establishing schools; the Georgian Charitable Society, with 24 branches, was started in 1914 in connection with the war. and has done great work in helping the families of the soldiers and the poor in general, the Georgian Agricultural Society; Georgian Historical and Etbnograiphlcal Society; Georgian Geographical Society; Georgian Journalists'. Society; Georgian Teachers' Society; Georgian Artists' Society; Georgian Technical Society; Georgian Mining Engineers' Society; Georgian Pharmaceutical Society; Georgian Medical and Naturalist Society, etc. There are also various cooperative unions; the cooperative movement Is very strong In the country. There are about four hundred sooperative societies--85 per cent of the Georgian peasantry are organized cooperators. Constitution of Gcorgia.-Georgla has been an independent Republic since November 22, 1917. At the head of it Is an elected President, and cabinet ministers are elected from among the members of Parliament. The seat of Parliament Is Tiflls. Ar.nu-The Georgian Voluntary Army has a force of 40,000 men, comprising all arms, and a fine corps of officers and experienced generals, amongst them 120 staff officers; one staff college, and two Military Schools for officers. Political 1fe.-The different political parties are: the National Democratic, Radical, National Socialistic, and Social Democratic. All parties are strongly democratic in their attitude and the population takes a lively interest in their conduct. The election system is based on the broadest franchise for both men and women.
GEOLOGICAl, DESCRIPTION
The Caucasian mountain chain extends from the Sea of Azoff In a straight and uninterrupted line to the Apcheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea in the direction west-nor~hwest to east-southeast and has a length of about 1,000 miles. Its western part mostly forms a single chain, while the eastern half expands in places Into three or four parallel ridges and forms the mountainous region of the Daghestan. Geologically the land between the two seas belongs to the tertiary and upper secondary orders, and was at an epoch after the deposit of the former pushed upwards by some gigantic subterraneous pressure and broken through by the Igneous matter which now forms the axis and crest of the main chain, in the shape of crystalline rocks, granite, gneiss, porphyry, diorite, traehytes, etc. I During the year 1920-21 this number was increased to practically double this amount, and one other university and several high schools were established.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA This intrusion left the originally horizontal strata in a nearly vertical podition, with outcropa on both sides of, and parallel with, the ws!n -Pidge, their tops slightly Inclined towards the south. This inclination explains why the mountains forming the main chain are generally steep on the south side, while their northern slopes cover . large area. At a later epoch a second similar disturbance lifted the land south of the main chain, where the Lesser Caucasus was formed, also with the Intrusion of the granite, porphyry, basalt, etc., which we now find In the Pontlc Ridge and towards Erivan. The upright position and the direction of the strata are approximately the same as In the main chain.
Considering that all these strata were originally more or less horizontal and formed part of the bottom of a sea which then covered most of Europe, and from which the Caspian was cut off by these upheavals, It will readily be understood how fossils and minerals of undoubted marine origin are to-day found on many mountain tops. At the same time the age of the original strata, as shown by their fossils, proves that the two great earth movements must have taken place in the tertiary period, that is to say, at a comparatively late date of the earth's history, so that these mountains may be called young and have not yet been destroyed or considerably altered by the Inevitable erosion. As to the formations which to-day constitute the surface of the Caucasus, It must be mentioned in the first instance that the main ridge formed at the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Jurassic epoch a barrier between two sea basins of quite different nature. The tertiary deposits from these waters therefore also vary considerably, accord. Ing to their position north or south of the main chain. The lower Lias, which represents the oldest bedded formations in the Caucasus and is not found anywhere else In southeastern Europe, exists here on both slopes and in contact with the central intrusive rocks. In the northern Caucasus it is found in the shape of schists and limestones containing vegetable imprints and the characteristic marine fossils. The latter are missing on the south side of the ridge, but the vegetable traces remain, and lead in several places to underlying coal measures. The oolitic system is represented on both sides of the main chain by evclusively marine formations, which, however, are not yet sufficiently explored In the central and western parts. But in the Daghestan the formation appears as a powerful series of black schists containing the characteristic fossils, and as ferruginous limestones and marls very rich iii remains of a great number of animal forms, specially ammonites. North of the central massif of the main chain the oolitic formation crops up as sandstone covered by dolomitic limestone and tertiary sediments, while south of It in Georgia, near Kutals, limestone and marls with corals appear. The Cretaceous formation shows important outcrops on both slopes in the shape of Senonian grey and white limestones, which are largely represented in the Daghestan to a thickness of about 1,000 meters. Eocene nummulitic limestone and calcareous sandstone are widely known on the south slopes and contain numerous nummulites and other fossils; especially In Georgia along the R04m River this formation is well developed. But oiu the north side of the main chain the nummulites are entirely missing in the corresponding strata. During the glacial period which followed the described formations the Cau. casus wag also covered with ice, and while the gig;ntie Ice sheets which had crept down from Scandinavia and covered the whole of northern Europe to the Urals did not quite reach the Cauca.ian chain, the great height of the latter favored the formation of glaciers, which radiated in all directions, covering mountains and lowlands alike, and joined in the south those descending from Mount Ararat. This period of extreme cold left its indications in numerous moraines found all over the country. and in many places on rocks marked and polished by the grinding action of the ice. Besides the two principal earth movements which produced the main chain and the Le.sser Caucasus, which run practically from cast to west, later disturbances must have effected a transversal pressure and undulatory movements, resulting lit depressions and elevatons. A depression occurred in the basin of the Sea of Azoff. severing the Caucasus front the Carpathians, of which it was originally the continuation, while an elevation produced the Suram Ridge, running north to south, which forms a connection between the main and the Lesser Caucasus and div:des eastern and western Georgia. This ridge constitutes to-day the watershed between the Black and the Caspian Seas, cutting the territory south of the main chain into two principal valleys, one of the Kura River, which falls into the Caspian, and the othei of the Pion River, which is much shorter anld forms a basin open toward the Black Sea. Similar conditions prevail in the northern Caucasus, where one of the two principal rivers, the Kuban, flows into the Sea of Azoff, and the other, the Terek, into the Caspian, both taking their sources in the central mountain stocks. The present orographic aspect of the country is due to yet two further factors which acted upon it in recent geological tmes, the first one being constituted by the intrusion of eruptive rocks, which occurred independently in many places on a smaller scale. Granite and porphyry In the Erivan district have already been mentioned, while in the Daghestan mountains diabase and melaphyres are more common. These igneous Intrusions often include or are accompanied by nietalliferous deposits or veins, and are therefore of the highest importance; their frequency Is, in fact, the principal cause of the richness of the country in certain minerals. Rather remarkable intrusions In the shape of two dykes of rhyolite exist in the northern Caucasus. The principal one forms the Beshtau Mountain, which reaches up to 4,200 feet above sea level, and the Kuma Mountain, which stands almost vertically like a needle to a height of 350 feet above 96153-2-----0
72
the plain, proof that at least this thickness of tertiary deposits has been washed away. These dykes are not accompanied by any metallic deposits, but their presence is undoubtedly connected with the many mineral sources which spring up around them. The second factor which to a certain degree influenced the present aspect of the country are the numerous volcanoes which were yet actice after the great movements had taken place and whose craters are still unmistakable, principally In the eastern main chain and the Erivan district. To-day they are extinct, and the only manifestation of seismic action are the so-called mud volcanoes, which are specially numerous in the Caucasus. They are small hills from which a dark, somewhat saline mud flows in a more or less continuous manner, driven out bw subterranean gases which escape in bubbles bursting on the surface. These flows exist mostly near both ends of the main Caucasian chain, on the Taman and Kertch Peninsulas and near Baku. The latter have in the course of time formed quite considerable hills, one of them being over 1,250 feet high. The mud is in places saturated with combustible gas and also naptha. This flow Is situated at some distance from Baka and near the sea, which itself Is also often agitated by subterranean gases which eject mud and stones. In view of the volcanic nature of the Apcheron Peninsula this is not surprising. In the Taman region the flows of mud vary considerably and have occasionally volcanic force. Similar muds, half liquid and more or less saturated with gases and of various temperatures, are also found in many other places, forming ponds without movement or apparent Inlet or outlet. Volcanic action of another kind is yet visible at the extinct volcano of Demavend, Daghestan, which appears to-day as a solfatara. It is 14,000 feet high and snow-topped, while all round it small cones have been formed from which sulphurous fumes escape. As further secondary manifestations of volcanic activity occurring to-day In the Caucasus there are to be mentioned the numerous hot mineral sources and gaseous emanations, described In Part III, and also the frequent earthquakes. The following descriptions of mines and mineral deposits do not claim to be a complete enumeration of all the occurrences of ores and other useful minerals existing in Georgia and the Caucasus, principally because a systematic geological survey of the country has not yet been made, In consequence of the absolute neglect by the Russian Government. The only serious investigations have been carried out by English, German, French, and Georgian geologists and engineers, who, however, mostly examined only certain mines or separate districts. Much has to be done yet to produce a complete and detailed geological survey of this country abounding In mineral riches. PART I. METALS mo The Caucasus contains several deposits of excellent iron ores, but It has so far been impossible to smelt them In the country on account of the absence or Inadequacy of the necessary fuel, and their export has been hindered by the difficulties and the cost of transport. The application of naphtha residues, which are the only carbonaceous material really available In quantities in the country, has apparently never been tried yet for the reduction of ores, but might be of use in connection with the electric furnace. As they are not of Immediate use, most of these deposits have not been closely examined, and in many instances only the outcrops are known. The total quantity of ore contained In them Is estimated at about 13,000.000 tons, as far as ascertained until now. This ore would contain about 7,000,000 tons of metallic Iron. The only deposit where a regular, though very small, exploitation is kept going occurs at Kiamull, in the Province of Kutais (Georgia). Ore has also been extracted at Ubissi and Shrosha In the same district. Hematite ore is found at Tchatakh. southwest of Tiius (Georgia). in a mass of porphyry of 72 feet thickness. The ore is disseminated in it in irregular proportions, the central part containing from 23 to 05 per cent metallic iron.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA A considerable outcrop having a length of 600 to 700 yards is visible along the River Bztbi, north of Sukhum (Georgia). It consists of brown hematite of good quality, produced probably by the oxidation of iron pyrites, a bed of which continues into the Apshrl Mountain. In the southwestern part of the country there are several good outcrops, as for instance near Artvin (Georgia), where rich red hematite Is found in Senonlan limestone, the samples from it containing from 50 to 63 per cent of metallic iron. Similar hematite exists also at Nadarbazar, and two deposits of it crop out near Batchinsk, at the contact of limestone and melaphyres; this ore body is of eruptive origin. In the northern Caucasus, in the Malkop district, there are several deposits of red hematite and magnetite, but they have never been properly investigated, although samples taken from the outcrops proved to be of remarkably high tenour, the hematite running up to 65.6 per cent of metallic iron and the magnetite even to 70.91 per cent. This ore seems therefore to be purer than that produced in the Donetz Basin and will undoubtedly in time be exploited. Another rather famous deposit of iron ore occurs in the Terek Provinde, near the old fortress of Vedenoff. It was used by the celebrated Shamil for the manufacture of cannons, although the quality i not very good, analyses of samples having given the following results: Per 73 Iron oxide-----------------------------------------------.......41. cent 27.10 Silica --------------------------------------------------------------15. 26 Alumina -----------------------------------------------------------1.04 Copper ------------------------------------------------------------0.87 -----------------------------------------Manganous oxide 3.27 ------------------------------------------------Moisture 9. 14 ----------------------------------------Loss on calcination 98.41 Total ----------------------------------------------------------Near Lenkoran, omi the Caspian Sea, there are also large deposits of sands mixed with chome Iron and magnetite, but not rich enough for treatment. Similar magnetic-iron sands cover also part of the shore near Poti, on the Black Sea (Georgia). In the Province of Elizabetpol, near Dashkesan, another large deposit occurs. The ore body consists of magnetite at the contact of diorite and limestone and has a thickness varying between a few feet and 20 yards. It is estimated to contain 2,000,000 tons, averaging 60 per cent of metal, and running in parts up to 65 per cent, but no work has been done on it. The quantities of ore extracted in the whole Caucasus during recent years were:
Tons
5T2 1910 -----------------------------------------------------------------655 ----------------------------------------------------1911 924 ------------------1912 ---------------------------------------------357 1913 -----------------------------------------------------------------532 1914 -----------------------------------------------------------------This ore was used locally, mostly for making paints, but there is no doubt that means will be found to exploit on a commercial scale specially the Georgian are easier of access and near deposits, which contain tihe bulk of the ore andt the sea.
M|ANGANESE
Manganese ore is one of tie three most important mineral products exist lIng in Georgia, the other two being oil and copper. The largest and worl-known deposits of this ore occur in the valleys of the Kvirlla River and Its affluents In the Province of Kutals. Georgia. and cover an area of 400 square miles. The available ore is estimated at 200,000,000 tons. This deposit and the industry springing from it have been separately and exhaustively dealt with in my paper on "The Georgian Manganese Industry and its World Importance." forming Part V of the present book, amid the following description therefore only refers to the other occurrences of Dianganese ore In Georgia, which are. however. not exploited. The most important of these deposits exists near Akstafa (Georgia). whence samples of exceedingly rich pyrolusite have bt en forthcoming. contalnng up to
74
95 per cent of manganese peroxide (60 per cent manganese metal) and only front 0.027 to 0.035 per cent of phosphorus. The geological formation is similar to that of Tehliaturi, the ore existing in horizontal beds Interstratified with sand, which continue at the same level through three adjacent hills, the gullies between them having been caused by erosiQn. This deposit has not been further explored, but is worthy of attention in view of the quality of its ore and its favorable position only a few miles from the main line of the Transcaucaslan Railway. In the Tchorokh Valley (Georgia). manganese ore occurs in another interesting deposit near Kartla, on the left bank of the river and not far from it and the high road, at about 35 miles front Battun. The ore is pyrolusite of good texture and not very friable. It exists in three layers, having a total thickness of about 3 yards. The beds are horizontal and their natural outcrops make extraction easy, no expensive or complicated operations being required. Assays of samples gave 53.00 and 54.40 iKer cent of manganese metal, from 0.07 to 0.09 per cent of phosphorus. and from 6.10 to 8.52 per cent of silica, without other objectionable elements, so that the ore seems of superior quality. An AngloFrench syndicate took an interest In this deposit some years ago, but only exploration work has so far been done in it. and the exploitation of this and other mineral occurrences in the Tchorokh Valley depends probably on the building of the projected railway through it. Manganese ore also crops out in the valley of the Itchkhala River (Georgia), a tributary of the Tchorokli from the western side. about 20 miles from Batunt. The ore is also pyrolusite. in places mixed with iron ore and contnlng tip to 27 ptr cent of iron. Only superficial exploration work has been done. eitherr highly interesting deposits also oeur in Georgian Lazistan. near the sea coast southwest of ilta. This district forms the continuation of the mineralized zone of the Tehorokhi Valley across the Ilemshtn mountain range, and most of the valleys running front the latter northwards to the sea between Rizeh ail Surnieneh contain minerals, as malganese, Iron, copper, or zinc. In the Karadereh Valley, near Surmeneh. large occurrences of manganese ore have been travel oer a distance of 6 miles along the n'suntaht side. The outcrops. where expo.M'd. have a width of from 4 to 10 feet and consist of high-grade pyrolusite. The nearest point of the deposit is only about 2 miles front the sea. Similar formations exist in the Treeboll Valley. The outcrop stands out prominently and has a thickness of about 12 feet; the lode strikes east-west with a dilp to the northwest. and is composed of limestone showing nodules ill] heavy im11lregraations of mangantse ore. The (center of tile lode carries a Veht of good ore. samples of whih contain 49.60 per tent of manganese metal. This outcrop is about ; miles front the sea and easily accessible. Other deposits of the same nature occur at Gooshak. where the quantity of available ore is esthnited at 1,000.00 touts; at liharltik, 2 tiles from the coast. where at least live beds of rich ore are exposed; at Slaradek, Khraklabek-tcha. ikadaheltree anl (Iovanyak, all lying In the same district and within a few miles from the sea. where loading stag(-e can easily be bIilt. Water is available in every valley for washing aind cone 1 rtting the ore, if necessary, i and the transport to the loading places would only require short train lines. The cost of the ore delivered on ioard ship would therefore be very low. The following analyses show the excellent quality of the ore found Ill this region:
SI III IV
v
Per cent
Ptr tat Manganese metal ..................................... 47. 06 iron metal .. ....................................... 64 Sulphur ............................................ . 121 Phosnborus-----------------------------------------.0.9 Silica ............................................... 4.18 Moisture ............................................ 1.33
Per cent Per cent 55.68 5& 69 2.44 .49 .4 00.. 10)3 :01.54 3.16 3.30 .8
41.0 22 .103 W 174 2.08
.70 .17 .064 2.70 Dried.
The presence of manganese ore In the large mineralized zone near Batum (Georgia) will be mentioned with the copper deposits of that region.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA COPPER Copper is, after petroleum and manganese, the most Important mineral products of Georgia and Caucasia. Its ores occur in a great number of places which were well known to the ancients and worked specially by the Georgians. The traces of their old workings and their slag heaps were in most instances the guides for the present exploitations, and as they could work only near the surface, the ore bodies are practically untouched in depth. 'he copper ores are generally found in fissure veins, and consist principally of chalcopyrite, mixed sometimes with malachite and other modifications, besides different noncupreous ores. Of the latter the most common are iron pyrites, which in many places predominate, while composite zinc ores containing blende and galena form the bulk of other veins, the copper forming only an accessory part. Generally speaking, copper ores occur almost everywhere in Georgia and form the richest inheritance of the country. If their actual exploitations are comparatively few in number and their output so far not very considerable, the reason lies principally in the absence of easy means of access to the mines, mostly situated in the mountains, and the difficulties of transporting the necessary fuel to them, while the latter itself may have to be imported by sea. These difficulties make it imperative for new concerns to provide means for large preliminary outlays for roads and means of transport, so that small companies have less scope of increasing their production of metal, however plentiful their ore reserves may be. The drawback of the fuel question might be avoided by exporting the ore to foreign smelters, but this policy has not been encouraged, because Russia herself was a great consumer of copper and did not produce enough for her needs. From the point of view of their position the copper ore deposits of Georgia may be divided into three zones, situated (1) south of Tiflis, east and west of the Tiflis-Kars Railway; (2) in the Tchorokh district, in the southwest corner of Georgia; (3) in the 5iangesur district, in the southeastern part. The best known mine of the first zone Is that of Kedabek, which formerly and for many years ranked first in the country. It is situated southeast of Tiflis, in Georgia, about 25 miles from the station Dalliar of the Tiflis-Kars Railway, and belongs to Siemens Bros. The ore deposit lies at Mis-Dag (Copper Hill), near the works, and consists of a succession of lenticular ore bodies of considerable dimensions, being up to 160 feet thick and 820 feet long In one Instance, while the intervening spaces sometimes narrow down to a- thickness of 6 feet. These lenses, of which 17 were discovered and worked out, were filled with quartzose rock and porphyry, containing chatcopyrite and oxidized black copper, mixed with iron pyrites, also zinc blende and galena, pertly with barytic gangue. The country rock consists of quartziferous andesites which are almost completely covered by a flow of lava. When worked by the old miners before Siemens acquired it, the mine was celebrated for its great tenour in silver, but the ores produced in recent times were almost sterile of precious metals and the principal product was copper, with some lead and zinc. The work In the mines was taken up again In 1864, when Siemens acquired it, but for a long time its operations were not very successful, principally on account of difficulties with the fuel, until they laid a pipe line enabling them to get fuel oil from Baku for use in the smelting and refining of the copper. Other improvements were introduced at the same time, and its modern methods and labor-saving appliances made of Kedabek the most renowned metallurgical establishment of the time in the country, representing a capital outlay of 'about half a million pounds sterling. In 1890 their output exceeded 1,000 tons of copper per year, which increased to about 1,750 tons p. a. between 100 and 1912. But after that period the ore at Mis-Dag began to get exhausted, and In 1914 only 14,400 tons were mined, producing 794 tons of metal. Since then only low-grade ores are being leached, and the production of metal amounts now to only 100 tons p. a. The days of this establishment seem therefore numbered, and its owners have already attacked another mine In the Tchorokh Valley, as will be described later. The second copper producer of this zone is situated at Alaverdi (Georgia). near the station Akhtala of the Tiflis-Kars Railway. The mines were worked
76
160 years ago by the Georgian kingdom. and are exploited since 1897 by a French company-Socit4 Industrielle et Mtallurgique du Caucase--on a lease expiring in 1944. As at Mls-Dag, the vein here also forms a succession of lenses, which vary considerably in thickness and frequently branch out sideways. Their'ai ?rage thickness is about 42 feet, but the largest ne-encountered so far was 30 leet thick, 120 feet wide, and 00 feet long. The ore Is 1halcopyrite a.id some purple ore, mixed with iron pyrites, and its tenor varies between 3.6 and about 10 per ce:t; it also contains about 4 shillings' worth of gold and silver per ton. The capacity of the smelter is 160 tons of 5 per cent ore per day. The mine produced in 1908, 1,871 tons, and in 1913, 3,735 tons of copper, the average cost being about 5% pence per pound. Besides Alaverdi the French company exploits yet several other mines, two of which are situated In the same district. Tchamluk, which they hold on lease, lies about 9 miles northeast of their smelter and is of analogous geological formation to the Alaverdi deposit, consisting of a series of pockets or widenings of the vein in gypsum and barytine. The ore produced here is treated at Alaverdl. A similar mode of exploitation is carried on at Shagall, situated east of Alaverdi in the upper valley of the Bortehalo River, in Georgia. A quartz vein containing chaleopyrite is being worked here, and the ore extracted Is also carried to Alaverdl for treatment, although a small smelter existed on the spot in connection with this mine. The establishments of Kedabek and Alaverdi possess the only large smelters in this district, but there are several veins in the neighborhood either being explored only or worked in a small way, their production going to the said smelters. One of them occurs in the Kasakh district (Georgia) and is worthy of notice. as tlhe work done in it seems to promise well. It was known to the ancient miners, as there are many indications of old workings on the property and large slag heaps, proof that at that time the ore was smelted on the spot. Before the war small quantities of ore were extracted, but the principal work consisted in preparing the mine for more intensive extraction, and resulted in the opening uip of six galleries and two shafts of an aggregate length of about 500 feet and a depth of 60 feet respectively. The ore found during these operations Is mostly chalcopyrite and also copper glance (covelline), or a mixture of both. Copper glance occurs in a vein about 14 Inches wide and assaying .30 per cent of copper, which has been followed over a length of 50 feet. About a dozen other veins were met with during the investigations, consisting mostly of chalcopyrite. There are also outcrops in the higher part of the property; one of them. about 2 feet wide and carrying copper glance and chalcopyrite, can be traced over a distance of about 150 feet. hut none of these outcrops have been fully examined yet. The situation of this deposit is advantageous. and only sufficient capital seems required to make it into an important producer. The western part of this copper belt is not les rich In metalliferous ores. but being more remote and mountainous, has apparently attracted less attention. Two contiguous old mining, fields have here to be mentioned in the first instance. situated at Djaralor and Tc.han-I3akhtcla, in Georgia. southwest of Tifll at about 40 miles from the railway. Up to about 50 years ago they were worked by Georgian miners, and the many old workings and slag-heaps show that In more ancle;,t times this must have bee;, a most Important center of midng activity. This may partly have been caused by the alleged riehness of the ore in sliver and gold. which Is said to have been considerable. but no recent confirmation of this fact is4 available. The country rock is of volcanic origin, and the mountains In the western part of the field consist largely of basalt and lava, In which not only the old mines were excavated. bit alqo human habitations. In the eastern portion diorite and porphyry predominate, and the metalliferous veins are usually located at the contact of tbese rocks in the fissures caused by volcanic eruptions. They are of uniform direction and inclination, approximately from west to east. and can be traced over considerable distances; in fact, there are veins and outcrops, partly revealed by old workings, all the way between the two villages named above. The ore is largely copper glance and cuprite, also malachite, while chalcopyrite, which predominates In most of the other copper zones, is compara-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA tively rare. This fact accounts for the average higher percentage of copper contained In the ores extracted' here, and probably also for the great proportion of metal still contained In the slogs which the old miners could afford to lose. As some work is always going on in different parts of this large field by the inhabitants, who are the descendants of the old miners, it is possible to examine it also to a certain depth, and there is no doubt of the continuity of the veins in that direction. Thirteen of them are known and have been worked or opened up, and the old and more recent underground workings are very considerable. The principal vein has been followed in depth by a shaft of 210 feet and worked by galleries extending about 300 feet, while its total length is ascertained over 3.850 feet. Its thickne.;s at the outcrops is only from 6 to 9 inches, but it widens out quickly to 40 inches and attains 43 inches at the deepest point, 24 inches of which consist of compact copper ore in quartz gangue. The analysis gave 22.40 per cent copper. In depth the center of the vein consists of pure chalcopyrite, while the edges toward both walls are converted into iron ore, the copper which was originally combined with the latter being found again as a secondary formation in the fine Joints, fissures, and cavities of the vein in the form of beautiful needles and small crystals of malachite, blue and green. Iron pyrites are missing in these veins, while the upper levels, besides chalcopyrite, also contain copper-glance and purple ore. All the other veins are of similar nature: the average thickness of those which have beetn worked or well explored is 32. 18, 28, 4, 8, 23, and 15 inches, respectively. Deailed calculations of the ore available above the water level amount to about 1,750.000 tons, the average contents in copper varying from 18 to 22 per cent, and this richness will, without any doubt, sooner or later brbg this mining field to life again. To the southeast of DJraior, in the direction of Erivan, several other depob.ts of copper ores are known, but no proper exploitation exists in this district. The following occurrences may be mentioned: At Delijan there are considerable outcr4ps of a vein widening out into lenses or pockets In altered porphyry. Their ore is said to contain from 6 to 7 per cent copper. At Karavan-Saral in the same region a very promising vein about 24 inches thick is known in porphyritic rock. Further south. near Novo Bayazid, on the western shore of the Gokcha Lake, copper veins occur in many places, but are not explored. Near Alexandropol the Sisimadan mines are worked in a small way and have a smelter attached to them, which Is, however, not of great importance. The vein is said to be about 4 feet thick, lying at the contact of diabase with limestone and gypsum, and to contain from 12 to 15 per cent of copper. Other mines are being explored at Shakar-Dara and Tamir-Magara, and small quantities of ore are extracted from them. Other Interesting occurrences of copper ores exist east of the Tifiis-Kars railway in the Kazakh district of Georgia at Vartikegh and Avessi-Tehal. They lie opposite one another on two hills, separated by the River IndJa-Su, an affluent of the Kura, but are of identical formation with paralldl veins. The country rock is diorite, much decomposed, specially at the former place. There are four outcrops of copper ores at Vartlkegh and three at Avessi-Tehal, in the shape of important veins, two of whieh are over 3 feet wide. They consist of quartz with chalcopyrite, also decomposed in places and containing there copper glance and green malachite. Only superficial exploration work has been done In this field by small galleries and open trenches along the veins, but their result leaves no doubt that we are in presence of a highly important deposit, which deserves fuller investigation. . Its environs represent a zone of remarkable mineralization. Immediately north of the copper there are outcrops of magnetic iron ore with a great number of old workings, and west of them we find important deposits of hematite, consisting of more than 40 veins, some of which are over 3 feet thick at the outcrops. In the northeast manganese ores crop out, and other deposits of copper again are being worked east and south of this field. Further east, abodt 30 miles from Kedabek and 20 miles from the railway, another Important deposit of copper and sulphur ores occurs at Djiraki.dscr. near the village Tchaikent. The ore bodies crop out in quartzite, partly coveted by clay schists, at the bottom of a ravine.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROIA They were in the first Instance worked for iron pyrites, as an outcrop of this mineral, about 190 feet long, was lying opdn at sight along the side of the hill. It forms an enormous and compact stock, whose depth into the hillside has not yet been ascertained and must be considerable. At present it is being worked In open cast and also by galleries and sent to Baku to the sulphurlcacid factories, where it replaces the. brimstone formerly imported from Sicily. It is of remarkable purity, showing a tenour of sulphur of between 50.51 and 51.73 per cent in cargoes without objectionable elements, which Is considerably superior to the Spanish ore. In the course of this exploration chalcopyrite was found and roughly sorted out from the iron pyrites; from time to time a few wagonloads of it were sent to the Alaverdi smelter, the bulk containing from 20 to 25 per cent of copper. In aces the iron pyrites also contain metallic copper in the shape of small specks disseminated through them, and also lentils of pure copper glance have met, weighing as much as 5 to 6 tons and containing from 61.45 to 65 per cent of copper. This metal, therefore. became interesting, and following some indications, a cross gallery was driven from the pyrites works, which at 40 feet cut an important vein of chalcopyrite, of a thickness between 3 and 7 feet and containing from 12 to 20 per cent of copper. An outcrop at the contact of granite about 400 yards from the mine was also examined and found to contain chalcopyrite and copper glance and to continue in deptb. These minerals also contain gold, analyses having proved up to 3.9 deadweight tons per ton. The work and further intended explorations in these mines were stopped by the war, but will in due time be taken up again. The Tchorokh Valley in Georgia, containing the second group of copper mines now to be considered, begins a few miles south of Batum and extends southward for about 60 miles to Lazisian (Georgia). The river receives many tributaries from both sides and is of fair size, sufficient for navigation at all seasons, if it could be tamed. But its fall is considerable, making its flow rapid and dangerous in places, on account of sudden windings and other obstacles. Transport is carried on at present In long. flat-bottomed boats, but only downstream, and the empty boats have then to be dragged up again by the boatmen. Also they can not go right down to the sea, but must discharge at a spot about 8 miles from Batum, where their cargoes have to be carried by road. The river can, therefore, not be relied upon as a regllar means of communication, but for power purposes it affords every opportunity. A. fine macadamized road runs along it, suitable for motor traffic, but the valley will really only be opened up when the long-projected railway is built. The Tchorokh district is eminently mineralized, chiefly with copper ores, and there is scarcely a side valley in it in which copper or other ore outcrops do not exist. The valley of the Mourgul River alone, one of the tributaries, and its immediate environs contain, according to the estimation of the best geologists, between 50.000,000 and 100,000,000 tons of ore containing about 8 per cent of copper. These occurrences were known and worked in antiquity by the Georgians and Romans, and also in the Middle Ages by the Genoese. The veins are generally in porphyry and cretaceous sandstone, and the ores appear in the state of sulphides. The most important exploitation of this district, and of all Georgia, !9 that of Dzansul, belonging to the Caucasus Copper Co. (Ltd.), a British-American concern with the highest financial backing in both countries (Morgan group), Their mine is situated at the top of the valley of the Mourgul River, which flows into the Tchorokh from the western side. It is reached from Batum by the highroad leading to Bortchka ( ". miles), crossing the Tchorokh River by a wire-rope ferry, which will be replaced by an iron bridge to be built by the government, and skirting the river southward for 2 miles to the entrance of the Mourgul Valley. From this point the company had to build its own road to Dzansul, a distance of about 10 miles, where there was formerly only a precarious horse track. This road now leads to the smelting works on the banks of the river, but the mines themselves are situated about 3,000 feet above them (and at 4,500 feet above sea level), so that a further zigzag road about 6 miles long and adapted for wheel traffic had to be constructed. The transport of the ore from the mine down to the works is, however, etfected by an aerial ropeway of about 2% miles in length. The mine is said to have been worked in prehistoric times, at all events under the Roman-Byzantine domination, and before the beginning of the present ex-
79
ploltation the old slag heaps had been surrounded and partly hidden again by secular forests, while one of the outcrops formed an easily visible wide yellow band across a vertical cliff. Serious exploration work was started in the year 1000, when the present company was formed, and it resulted in the opening up of probably the largest connected ore body known In eastern Europe, measuring some 160 feet by 330, an4 1,000 feet in length. This is covered by an overburden of clay and alluvium of between 50 and 100 feet in thickness, which is removed by mechanical and hydraulic means. so that the ore can be worked In open cast at very small expense. The ore consists of chalcopyrite and some bornite, mixed with iron pyrites In quartzite gangue and a9says approximately 3 per cent of copper in the average; but its quantity is very considerable indeed; in 1914 there were some 4,000,000 tons of it actually in sight. The mine and the works are provided with the most modern appliances, ample power being available in the Mourgul River, which supplies the electric current for the mines and the concentration and smelting works. The latter are situate'd near the river and are able to produce about 1,000 tons of concentrates per day, which are then smelted and refined. The workmen and the staff connected with the works are housed near the river, while a great number of buildings have tlso been erected near the mines for offices, stores, shops, dwellinv'!, etc. All these installations, and the making of roads, the fleet of motor transports for connection with Bntum, etc., cost an enormous amount of money, but it was forthcoming, because, without any doubt, the mine possesses all the elements of success. Unfortunately, the treatment of the ore proved a serious problem and the methods adopted at the beginning of the 'exploitation were found to be unprofitable. The Initial plant was therefore scrapped in 1905 and the wet concentration method introduced, which gave satisfactory results and was afterwards Increased to a daily capacity of 1,000 tons. For saving the former losses in the slimes and tailings a minerals separation plant was also added in 1913, dealing with about 400 tons per day, so that all the difficulties seemed solved when the war broke out. The first consequence was that the Laze workmen returned across their frontier, which is only a few miles distant from Dzansul. Nevertheless, the exploitation continued until November, 1914, when a Turkish force invaded the valley, and the works had to be shut down. The Turks were driven out again in March, 1915. without having done much damage, but the mine has been Idle ever since. Nevertheless it has all the elements for becoming in the course of time one of the largest copper producers In eastern Europe. Its production during the last few years was: To-n030 1911-12-----------------------------2, 2,992 1912-13 ------------------------------------------------3,936 1913-14 ------------------------------------------------About 6 miles above Dzansul, on the Murvan River, an affluent of the Mourgul River, another copper deposit has been located and to a certain extent explored. Its nature is the same as that of Dzansul, and the explorations, carried out by means of galleries and drill holes, disclosed so far in three different places stocks of sulphide ores existing at the contact between sedimentary rocks and quartzites. The drilling, without reaching bottom, has proved the existence of at least 100,000 tons of ore, and this only in a small part of the deposits, which are cetainly highly interesting. The following is a typical analysis of the ores coming from this region: Per cent 19.80 Copper ------------------------------------------------25.70 Iron --------------------------------------------------28.40 Sulphur ------------------------------------------------3.50 Alumina ------------------------------------------------1.10 Magnesia -----------------------------------------------1.00 Lime ---------------------------------------------------20.60 Silica ------------------------------------------------Traces. Gold and silver ----------------------------------------Total --------------------------------------------100.0)
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA The second mine now in exploitation and likely to acquire importance in the Tchorokh district is situated at Kvartzkhana, about 37 miles from Batum, and only 10 miles from Dzansul, as the crow flies. It has the advantage of being situated on the right bank of the Tchorokh and only a short distance from the highroad, so that no extensive road-making was necessary. The original outcrops occur on a high, and in places very steep hill situated between the gorges of the Betauli and Kvartzkhana River, which unite below the hill and flow into the Tchorokh. The mountains in this part of the Tchoroklk Valley form a part of the Pontie Ridge, which extends westward toward Lazistan and eastward to the sources of the Kura River. The central portion is formed of granite, which crops out near the town of Artvin, and which lower down along the river is replaced by porphyry, and then by clay slate and schists, traversed by quartz-like sandstone. The gorges of Betauli and Kvartzkana which open out on the Tchorokh River, and the lower slopes of the latter Itself, consist of clearly defined formations of these clay schists and sandstones, while in the upper parts of the gorges chiefly porphyry formations crop up. Among the latter a large mass of quartz is noticeable, which is probably connected with a large similar outcrop occurring opposite Artvin. This mass is in niany places more or less metallized, and contains chalcopyrite, copper-glance, green and blue malachite, and also galena and zinc blends. The original exploration work was executed in the clay schists containing the beds of quartzose sandstone in which the metalliferous veins are found. These strata of sandstone occur in succession at varying distances within a lode from 200 to 2W0 feet wide, and although the outcrops were not of great width, it was evident from their formation that they were connected with larger ore bodies. These deposits attracted the attention of Messrs. Siemens Bros., of Kedabek, who began some preliminary explotation work in them, and as it proved satisfactory, they secured the mines In 1906 and prepared them for exploit. dion on a large scale. They had soon proved a considerable ore body containIng about 500,000 tons of ore with a tenour of about 4% per cent of copper, in the shape of chalcopyrite mixed with iron pyrites, and also about 8 shillings worth of gold per ton. An aerial ropeway was therefore built from the mine down to the highroad and to the river near Bortchka, where the smelter and refining works were erected, the smelter being able to deal with about 200 tons of ore per day. A considerable part of the staff.from the dwindling Kedabek mines was brought over here, as mentioned elsewhere, and the whole installation had only been fully equipped and a considerable quantity of ore was ready for the smelter, when the war broke out and the works had to be closed. . On the next hill north of the above deposits, near the village Irsa, more large outcrops are known, in similar geological formations, and a great deal of exploration work done on them has proved their value, but they are not yet being exploited. The western bank of the Tchorokh River south of the Mourgul Valley is equally rich in copper ores, Judging by the numerous outcrops known everywhere. For many of them preliminary permits were obtained by local parties at one time or other, but no work was done, so that the claims lapsed again. Anyhow, according to the geology of the country, these deposits, when opened up, may turn out fully as valuable as the above large exploitations. Mention may be m :de here of the valley of the Katila River, which falls into the Tchorokh below Artvin. Within 5 miles from the Tchorokh there are at least nine very promising outcrops of chaicopyrite of the usual formation In this zone. They are at Nadjvia, Tzild Deressi, where a vein of about 12 inches crops out in yellow sandstone, at Satovo Deressi. about 1 mile from the river, at Kepketa-Kepri, Elel Ogli, Sholab Ogli, Degir Bandi, etc., all also near the Katila and Tchorokh Rivers, so that they could very easily be made accessible. Higher up in the valley sim'hr conditions prevail at Porosseti, Nirvana, and Nakerav, which latter village is surrounded by mountains over 9,000 and 10,000 feet high. Copper must have been actually produced by the ancients on the Kuapta mountain, about 2 miles southwest of the town of Artvin (Georgha), where the usual remains of old workings,. slag heaps, etc.. altoul. In the highest and most remote part of the Tchorokh Valley, near the Turkish frontier and about 90 mles from Batum, we have the mines of
81
Khod-Eli, narrowly enclosed by steep mountains of volcanic origin and partly consisting of columnar basalt. They must be of very ancient origin, judging from the slag heaps and antiquities found there. The vein Is about 30 Inches w:de, consists of quartz with chalcopyrite through porphyry, and contains about 5 per cent of copper. The mine had of recent years a smelter attached to it, the ore being first roasted in heaps in the open. The matte produced was then carried on horseback to the Tchorokh River, and on it by boats, when the conditions allowed It, to a small refinery at Erghi, near the mouth of the river and about 8 miles from Batum, where the matte was finally treated. Principally on account of the difficulties of transport the mine had to be shut down, but it has lately been taken up again by new capital and a new plant has been erected, which produced between 450 and 700 tons of copper per annum.before the war. The lower parts of the Tchorokh Valley below Dzansul are not less favored with metalliferous riches than those described above, although no large exploitations exist yet in this district. One of the most interesting deposits occurs about 6 miles below Bortchka, and only 24 miles from Batum, easily accessible. The outcrops cover an area of about I square mile. Some of them were worked in a small way about 20 years ago, and the ore was sent to the smelter at Erghi, mentioned above. But the owners of the concession could not provide an exploitation on a sufficient scale, and therefQre continued with exploration work only in order to test the outcrops. For this reason this deposit is now well known and merits attention. During the Investigations 17 different outcrops were followed by galleries of various lengths, the most important one being of about 150 feet. They disclosed at least 13 separate veins, their thickness varying between 6 inches and up to 7 feet in places, but averaging mostly about 20 inches. The ore is generally chalcopyrite in quartz, in places also malachite, and the average tenor of the ore extracted from the different galleries was 8.70 per cent of copper. All the veins in the center of the field run in the direction of a mountain forming its northwest corner and rising to about 1,000 feet above the level of the valley. Outcrops of the same nature are found also near the top of this mountain, and all the experts who have visited the place therefore assume that the veins converge and form an important ore body in the center of the mountain. So far no work has been done to test this diory, but some enterprise in this direction seems indicated, as its success Is almost certain, and In this case the mine has the further advantage of being more accessible and nearer the pert of Batum than almost any other in the Tchorokh Valley. About three-quarters of a mile northeast of this field there Is another large outcrop of copper ores, and its direction and general geological condition make it very probable that it is connected with the central mountain described above. The width of this lode between salbands is 10 yards, and It consists of a vein of 1 yard of quartz containing chalcopyrite, marcasite, and zinc blende at the roof. The floor is formed by a vein more than 3 yards thick of quartz impregnated with chaloepyrite. In the center between these two veins there is a third one about 40 inches thick, also of quartz with chalcopyrite. This large lode, which Is visible at the bottom of a creek and again at a considerable height above it, has been explored only at the surface, but should be more closely Investigated, as it seems to contain large ore bodies. In the same valley another vein is known in which zinc predominates, at least near the surface. It is about 28 inches wide and consists of zinc blende with incrustations of chalcopyrite. and the gangue. consisting of quartz, is also impregnated with the same minerals. Analyses of samples showed 42 per cent zinc and 1 per cent copper. No exploration work has been done on this vein either, but it has been superficially traced at the bottom of a creek, and again 500 feet further on and 175 feet above the first outcrop, and Is therefore undoubtedly interesting. The valleys containing these deposits as well as that of the Tchalt River ending at Bortchka are all commanded by the Kara-Shalvar Mountain, 5,000 feet high, whose western slopes extend into Lazstan c'own to the Black Sea, near Khopa, Arkhavl, and Veronet. As might be expected, the geological formation in the valleys of Lazistan Is the same as in the Tchorokh Basin, and the mineral veins continue across the mountain chain, cropping out again in the same profusion. Prospecting was therefore also going on before the war near Khopa and Arkhavi, and copper and zinc outcrops are known to exist In
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Lazista.. -s far as Rize and Surmene, besides the manganese ore already mention, but no exploitations exist yet In this d:strlct. Returning to the eastern bank of the lower Tchorokh Basin and specially to the upper valleys of its tributaries, we find there another important copper belt between the Imerkhevl and Akrla Rivers In Georgia. This must formerly also have been a busy mining center, as most of the outcrops have been laid bare by old workings and slag heaps abount In most places near them. The principal ore found everywhere is chalcopyrite, sometimes also malchite, and the outcrops are in the Jurassic formation. In several places great numbers of veins run In parallel direction and may be followed over hundreds of yards, their widths varying between a few Inches and 0 feet. Samples taken from them gave everywhere rich assays, also some gold. As only superficial investigations have been made of recent years, full details of all the occurences are not available, but enough is known to show the desirability of closer Investigation. The valley of the Adjara River, which falls Into the Tchorokh about 10 miles from Batum, contains the deposits nearest to the sea. Two mines were worked there, near Agara and Merissi, and the ore was brought down to the smelter at Erghl. The next valleys to the south are those of the Chaklls River, with its tributary the Akria River, and conta':: copper outcrops and o(d mines at the villages, Sindlethl, Aghmarthl, Tskhemalana, Tchikunethl,. Akria, and Ephrat, all In Georgia, the nearest being 13 miles and the farthest about 30 miles from Batum. Southeast of this district and in the territory drained by the Imerkhevl River and its tributaries most of the villages within a radius of 10 miles can show old mines or outcrops more recently discovered. Mention may be made here only of Inkhreul, Dioban, Koklethi, Ivethl, Zeklethl, Badsghlrethi, Daba, Surevan. Ube, and Andrlatsminda in the north, and Tchlkhor, DzIos, Sinkot, Dovlethl, Dzetlethl, and Dzkaltzimor in the south. Some of these mines contain also znc and lead, and, for instance, Badsghirethl is known to have been worked for silver by the Turkish Government when the district was under their rule, and there are still many villagers livIng who worked there. A more recent analysis of samples drawn from there gave: Per cent Copper --------------------------------------------------------------19.02 Zinc ---------------------------------------------------13.02 Lead ---------------------------------------------------------------10.35 At Ardala, on the Imerkhevl River, near its fall into the Tchorokh, there also exists a quartz vein with feldspatic rocks traversing porphyry, and containing about 6 per cent of copper. In the same neighborhood, almost opposite Artvin (Georgia), a powerful quartz vein crops out at the contact of metamorphic sandstone and porphyry; It a about 2 meters thick and contains iron pyrites mixed with a good proportion of chalcopyrite, but no analysis is available. Although these numerous deposits situated on both slopes of the Kartchkhal Mountain, which rises to 11,248 feet above sea level, formed once a most Important copper smelting center they are not -worked now and not even well known, because they are not situated on the usual highroads. Nevertheless they could easily be made accessible for modern traffic and connected with the highroad in the Tchorokh valley, and, being situated near the sea and in a well-populated district, they will undoubtedly sooner or later be brought to life again. The Zangesour District, which forms the third copper mining area of Caucasia, is less important than the two former ones. It Is situated in the southeastern part of the country, toward the Persian frontier, and its position is rather unfavorable for transport as the nearest railway station, Evlakh, on the Tiflis-Baku line, is about 130 miles distant. This is the pincipal reason why the exploitation of this zone is less intensive, but It will undoubtedly expand as well when better means of transport are available. Several mines are being worked at present in a comparatively small radius; they were also known to the ancients who left the usual workings and slag heaps, and even their tools have been found. The ore of this zone Is also principally chalcopyrife, also copper glance, with admixture in places, of zinc blende and galena.
The name of the district, "Zangesour," proves Its old notoriety, as It means "sounding brass." The old exploitation was taken up again in 1845 when a small smelter was erected; two more followed in 1851 and a further one In 1857. But the working remained In a very primitive state until 1904, when the first modern installation arose at Barabatum. The Synik mine is situated at a distance of 2 miles only from the latter place, and belongs now to the Socldt( Industrielle et Mbtallurglque du Caucase which also works Alaverdi. The mine contains some 20 different veins, from 7 inches to 4 feet wide, containing chalcopyrite and some purple ore in quartz gangue, also a small proportion of precious metals. A great"deal of money has been spent on this mitie and the smelting works which, as mentioned, are installed on modern lines, but their production has still to be developed; it was 721 tons of metal in 1909 and 939 tons in 1913. The neighboring Barabatum mine, although under different ownership, is worked in connection with the Synik smelter and also receives the required electric current from it. It contains several veins of the same character, of a thickness varying between 6 inches and 2 feet and widening out in places even to 7 feet. The ore is hand-picked and then contains an average of 10-18 per cent of copper. The small ore is washed In the river and concentrated by primitive means, and the roasting also only takes place in heaps In the open, whereupon the product goes to the Synik smelter. The production of ore is not considerable, some 2,000 or 3,000 tons per year, as the owners are mostly doing exploration work. The mine also contains an old dump heap of some 40,000 tons of slag containing between 2 and 3 per cent of copper and altogether deserves to be more energetically exploited. The Ugurtehal mine is worked by Tiflis owners on a fairly wide lode, but also in a primitive fashion. They also have a small smelter which in recent years produced from 500 to 80 tons of copper p. a. Other copper mines in this district occur at the villages Agarak, Katara, and Baihkent, the first one possessing a -ein about 2 feet wide between diorite and syenite, and containing about 10 per cent of copper and some molybdenite. The Gnlisur mines, which formerly were well known, have not been worked of later years. On the other hand, new exploration work has been started near Byelokan, where an ore body of apparently considerable size has been discovered. The district contains several other small producing properties whose only drawback lies in the transport difficulty. Although the railway from Tiflis to Persia runs at a distance from 30 to 54) miles west of the mines, there is, at present at least, no connection possible in this direction, on account of the intervening mountain chain rising to more than 10,000 feet, and the only hope of improvement lies in the building of the projected branch railway from the Iaku line to the town of Shusha, from which the mines are easily accessible. The three mining areas described above do not cover all the Caucasian copper-bearing fields, and separate deposits occur also in many other places, specially In Georgia along the main mountain chain. The eastern part of it between Telaw and Zakatali is fairly rich in quartzose veins containing chalcopyrite and iron pyrites, notably at Pshavell, Zakatall, and other laces. They vary in width between a few inches and several feet," but in general seem too poor or too difficult of access for successful working and have not been touched. The Kasbek group of mountains in Georgia contains at least two considerable deposits of copper ores. The first one lies on its northern slope oti the left bank of the River Terek, and, although situated at a high altitude, it presents no special difficulty to the extraction of the ore. The country rock is formed of nearly vertical strata of grey granites and porphyries and almost black schistose diorites, and the metalliferous veins run along the latter. Their gangue consists of quartz or calcite impregnated with chalcopyrite. Considerable exploration work has been d6ne on the deposit, and seven veins have been fully traced at different levels. Their width varies between 8 inches and 7 feet, widening in one place even to 14 feet. The extension of at least two of them has been exactly determined over a length of 04, and 700 yards, respectively, and at levels Olffering by 700 feet. The ore existing in them is estimated at 1,000,000 tons, containing an average of t1 per cent of copper. The quantities contained in the other veins have so far not been ascertained, but all of them extend much further in depth and crop out again about 4,000 feet lower down on the mountain side.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA The extraction of the ore will be easy by means of adits at different levels, and there Is no difficulty in building an aerial ropeway for Its transport to a smelter to be erected at the foot of the mountain. Fuel can easily be brought from Vladlcaucase, a distance of 27 miles, and In this regard this mine is much better placed than those In the south of the country and Is altogether fully prepared for an undoubtedly profitable exploitation. 'The second deposit on the Kasbek (Georgia) occurs at a few miles distance from the above In a side valley on the eastern bank of the River Terek and at about the same altitude. The geological conditions are also similar; the metalliferous veins consist of quartz embedded in clay schists, and contain chalcopyrite with much malachite. Seven or eight of them are known and crop out at different heights, but there is not enough exploitation work done to estimate their contents. However, they extend over such a wide area that there can be no doubt of their richness In ore. This property Is partly covered with forests wlitt,', might be used for the purposes of a mine, and considerable water power could be supplied by a stream flowing through It. In the vicinity of Viadicaucase there are four more deposits of copper ores known, although not explored. Copper .ores exist also at lower altitudes In the Province of Kutals, Georgia, near the River Rion, and two groups of outcrops may be specially mentioned. The country rock is generally dioritic, crossed by thick veins of basalt, quartz. and baryta. The quartz and baryta are mostly mineralized with chulcopyrlte and malachite, also copper glance, and in many places the deposits resemble those of the Alaverdi mines. They extend over a wide area on both banks of the river, and old slag heaps prove that they were formerly worked, but In recent times they have been lying entirely idle. Further west a most interesting mineral district lies near the Black Sea, In Georgia, only about 25 miles from Batum. It covers an area of about 40 square miles and contains, besides copper, also zinc and lead, as well as manganese and Iron. and it seems surprising that in spite of their favorable position these deposits were never worked and are even scarcely known. The surface formation consists mostly of grey or white clays, the products of the decomposition of porphyrytic rocks which on washing give galena. blende, and chalcopyrite. Quartz which in other parts forms the usual gangue of the veins, is here almost entirely absent and Iron pyrites form only a very small proportion. One of the outcrops consists of two parallel veins, the upper one about 9 inches wide, the lower one from 3 to 28 inches; they are divided by a bed of Kaolin and can be worked together. The mineral extracted from them Is solid, and all analysis gave 8 per cent copper, 40 pur cent zinc, and 20 per cent lead. Other samples contained from 7 to 16 per cent copper; In some there was more lead than zinc, even up to 60 per cent of the former In the metallic state. The veins from which these minerals derive, as it is clearly shown in other outcrops, can be reached by a gallery of about 140 feet driven through the kaolin ;'its cost would easily be paid by the ores recovered. A further vein crops out directly about a mile from the above: It is a pure vein in porphyry of more than 15 Inches In width and contains 7 per cent "copper, 48 per cent zinc, and 8.5 per cent Iron pyrites, practically without any silica. The conditions for working it are also very favorable. Several other outcrops of similar nature are known, but have not been explored. Manganese ores are also found in this district, either In the shape of rocky outcrops, or weathered In grains mixed with the surface earth over large areas. The pyrolusite taken from the outcrops was found to contain also some iron, but Its tenour In depth is not known and would be interesting, specially in view of the fact that at a distance of about half a mile from the manganese there are very considerable outcrops of magnetic iron ore of great purity and remarkable magnetic properties. These two deposits might together form the center of a metallurgical industry for the production of ferro-manganese, zinc, and lead. In view of their proximity to the sea, only 20 and 25 miles from two ports, the fuel question would here not make any difference whatever, and there is no doubt about the presence of large quantities of ore, while several rivers could supply power. Many other outcrops of copper veins are known between the Black Sea and the western part of the Caucarsian main chain, but they are not explored. A very considerable one Is said to exist above the monastery of Novo Aphon
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA near Sukhum, Georgia, and samples received from there proved very rich, consisting of copper glance which contained 50.25 per cent of copper. The following statistics give a general aspect of the copper industry In Georgia and Caucasla in recent years:
1911 1912 1913 1914
copper minesNumber of
Having their own smelters ........................................ Without saielters ..................................................
15 17
15 14
16 21
14 14
Copper ores extracted by the totality of the mines

Tons
1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. Total production of refined copper in Caucasia

Tons
237,415 324,098 319,469 359.674 238,954
Tons
1901 -----------------------1902 -----------------------1903 -----------------------1904 -----------------------1905 -----------------------19t, ----------------------1907------------------------
3,99 3,440 4,240 4,785 3,707 3,829 5,003
1908 ------------------------ 4,820 1909 ------------------------ 6,311 1910 ------------------------ 7,695 ------------------- 8,346 1911 1912 ------------------------ 9,657 1913 ----------------------- 10,136 1914 ------------------------ 8,259
Largest producers 1911 1 1912

T4, 5
I 3,00 1,435
1913 3 12
1914 4,071
To Sociftf Industrielle et Mdtallurgique du Caucase ...............90

('auclus Copper Co. (Ltd.) ................................. Siemens Bros ............................................... .. .2 1,551
3,32 1,272 1
2,892 794
SILVER-LEAD AND ZINC
These ores are plentiful in Georgia and Caueasia, but in most instances the zinc blende, which predominates, is mixed with galena, chalcopyrite, Iron pyrites, and other elements which make the treatment difficult and expensive. Lead ores, as such, have so far not been found, but the compounds usually contain some silver. Probably for this reason there is at present only one mine producing zito! and lead in Caucasla; it is owned 'ty the Socit6 Minitre et Chimilue Alagir, a Russo-Belgian company managed by Belgians. Their mine is situated at Sadon in the northern Caucasus about 50 miles west of Vladicaucase. while the smelter is near the latter town. The yelps are of quartz In granite rock and contain zinc blonde, argentiferous galena, and Iron pyrites. Before the war about 100 tons of this ore were extracted per day, containing about 16 per cent zinc, 0 per cent lead, 12 per cent iron, and 5 ounces silver per ton. This ore is hand-sorted and treated, and produces a concentrate containing about 63 per cent lead and 45 per cent zinc, but In the refilling only about 60 per cent of these contents are recovered. In 1910 the ore reserve,: were estimated at 100,000 tons in the vein which is now being worked, bu,. at short distances from it there are about 15 others of varying thickness, running up to 6 feet, but in general not very rich. Alagir is the only establishment producing also silver in Caucasia, about half a ton per year, while its yearly productii of zinc amounted to about 3,000 tons before the war, and that of lead to 1.000 tons. Deposits of similar ores are known in many other places on the northern slopes of the Caucasian main chain, mostly in the district of Batalpash, near
86
Takhtaul-Tchalgan, where a company formed in recent years has extracted small but increasing quantities of ore. At Khostinsk, in the same zone, exploration work In a small way has been going on for several years in a deposit of the same nature. On the southern side of the mountain chain near the Black Sea in Georgia two other small exploitations exist, one on the Akhista-Akara mountain near Sukhum, and the other on the Dzisbra.Abakhu mountain in the district of Gudaut. The former shows a very good outcrop over a considerable length, and contains principally rich galena, with zinc, but no silver. Both places deserve to be closely examined, because, if they come up to expectations, their position near two seaports will greatly facilitate their exploitation. The Tzkhinval Valley, near Gorl, in Georgia, also contains outcrops of rather rich lead and zinc ore, as surface samples assayed up to 62 per cent of lead and 25 per cent of zinc, but no work has been done on them. South of Tiflis a zinc mine was formerly worked at Akhtala, on the Bortehala River, In Georgia, but it was not very successful as the ore Is very complex, as the following analyses show: Per cent Per cent Copper--------------. 3.80- 5. 800 Zinc ------------------ 33. 70-41. 680 Lead ... ----15.30-11.000 Iron -----------------8.40- 5.380 Silver --------------0.04- 0.015 Sulphur-------------- 29.56-31.000 Gold ------------------Trace. Silica---------------7.50- 4.400 No work has been done here of late years. In the same neighborhood, about 40 miles southwest of Tiflis. a rather Interesting occurrence is known near Tchatakh (Georgia). A quartz vein 4 .2 feet wide traversing dioritic porphyry is richly impregnated with different ores which have been ascertained to be composed of 23 per cent of galena, 34 per cent of zinc blende, 33 per cent of chalcopyrite, and 0.026 per cent of silver. This place was formerly worked and Is said to have produced also much gold. The deposit which, although not worked and not much known, seems to be most suitable for a future profitable exploitation, is situated in the Province of Elizahetpol, about 30 miles from the Tiflis-Baku Railway and easily accessible. It covers about 2 square miles in the upper part of a valley partly covered with great forests. It must at one time have been an important center of activity, judging from the old workings and slag heaps, of which over 100 are visible. A great number of veins are also disclosed by outcrops, all running west to east, lut only four veins have been really tested by the present owners of the property, who have driven galleries along them, one of 9) yards and three of about 2"25 yards each. The veins are well defined in quartz and from 7 to 22 inches thick, widening out in places to 40 inches. The ore is an unusually pure blende, partly brownish caramel blende, containing according to an analysis made iti Belgium: Per cent Per cent Zinc --------------------59.6S Fluorine --------------------0. 05 Lead ------------------- traces. Iron oxide and alumimna ----3 opper. antimony -----------nil. Lime and magnesia ----------2 Cadilum --------------------. 15 Slia --------------------3.40 Arsenic-------------------.02 Silver (grains per ton) ------- 13 Sulphur -----------------30.76 These samples, taken from the galleries near the bottom of the valley, are therefore of a remarkable purity and the mines undoubtedly deserve closer attention, specially also because they might form time basis of spelter works in thi. region. There are no such works in southeastern Europe and in installation in this district would have an enormous field of activity extendIng eastward to Siberia. Transcaslia and Persia. Another outcrop of zinc-lead ores exists In the same province of l,1zael'tpl near Tjegam. It is not explored, but samples taken from it have been analyzed and are said to have given the following results: Per cent Per cent Zinc -----------------48. to 53 Manganese ---------------0.42 Lead ---------------------13.40 Sulphur ----------------14..40 Iron ---------------------2.50 Silver ---------------------. 007 1Estimated.
87
As this outcrop is only 5 miles from the railway, it should also be followed up. The southwestern region of Georgia also contains zinc and lead ores in many places, but mostly mixed with copper, and several occurrences have already been mentioned under the latter heading. In those now to be described the zinc predominates, but only one of them has been actually worked in our time. It is situated at Khod Ell, at the farthest point of the Tchorokh Valley near the Turkish frontier. Originally it contained two contact veins about 14 and 18 inches average thickness, composed of blonde and iron and copper pyrites. Their composition near the surface was as follows: Per cent Per cent Zinc---------------- 50. 3847.26 Sulphur--------------. 32.85-31.95 Copper ---------------. 6.82- 6.45 Silica -------------0.85- 1.36 Iron --------------2.95-- 2.84 But in depth the zinc was found to diminish to such azi extent that the extraction of this metal became unprofitable and had to be given up. Copper alone is now produced in this mine, as mentioned in the precedent chapter. In the neighborhood of Artvlu two more similar deposits occur which are, however, not worked. One of them borders on the river Imc-rkhevi (Georgia), and crops out as a quartz vein containing blende, accompanied, as usual here, by chalcopyrite, and assaying 48.50 per cent of zinc, with 2.86 per cent of copper. The outcrop which can be followed for sone distance, is 14 inches thick. The other outcrop occurs at quite a short distance above the town of Artvin on the Kuapta Mountain. Only surface work has been done on it, revealing the presence of a well-formed lode, about 4 feet thick, which was followed over a length of 24 feet and continues. d!pplng northeast. The ore from the surface workings is rather complex and contains, besides the blende, also galena and copper and iron pyrites. An average sample gave the following results: Per cent I Per cent Zinc --------------------31.47 Copper -------------------3.90 Lead --------------------12.16 Cadmium -----------------4.04 Iron --------------------tO. 76 Sulphur -----------------23.78 Copper may predominate at lower depths, as it has happened in other mines of this district. This seems all the more possible as the lower levels of the Kuapta Mountain have indeed been worked for copper in ancient times, as the o0( slag-heaps and traces of galleries show. The tributary valleys on the east side of the Tchorokh also contain ores of zinc and silver-lead, which. although not worked now, were at one time famous. The best-known exploitation was at Badsghirethi, where silver was extracted by the former Turkish rulers of the district, as already mentioned. Farther east at Gumush.Khan6, in the Zangesur district, at about 20 miles from the railway running from Tiflis to Persia, there is a deposit of very rich galena containing silver in which an English company had dene a certain amount of preparatory work which promised well, but was stopped before the war. The total output of argentiferous lead and zinc ores in Caucasia during recent years was: Tons Tons 1910 -----------------------. 28,805 1913 ---------------------- 25,517 1911 -------------------. 20,060 1914 ------------------13,773 1912 -----------------------. 28,495 About 93 per cent of these ores were mined by the Alagir Co. To this company is also due the extraction of the following metals, which form the total of the Caucasion production: 191t
Zic ................. c............................
.
1912
Ton,
2,907
1913
Tort
2,902
1914
Tons
2,370
Ton,*
2,249
1,m
1,5391
1,446,
,0
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Oz. Troy 67,240 135,276 127,454 71,735 time as Tons 6,207 --------------------------------Sulphurlc acid 70 ------------------------------------------------Nitric acid 280 ------------------------------------------Hydrochloric reld 54 --------------------------------------------Sulphate of Iron 356 -------------------------------------------Sulphate of lead The exploitation of some of the other zinc and lead mines in Caucasia would be most desirable, as, besides the local and eastern markets, Russia alone is a large buyer of these metals, and imported, for instance, In 1913, 58,000 tons of lead and 26,000 tons of zinc. 1911 ----------------------------------------------1912 ----------------------------------------------1913 ----------------------------------------------1914 While producing these metals the Alagir Co. obtained at the same by-products:
GOLD
Silver:
The Caucasian Mountains, with their great tertiary movements and numerous intrusions of granitic, dioritic, and diabasic rocks might be expected to contain also gold. According to the old legends one would look for the precious metal in the first Instance in Georgia, as being the ancient Colchis where the Argonauts came from far to collect the gold In the rivers by means of sheepskins placed Into them. If we are to believe these tales, what must have happened there is only what has been repeated in many places since then; there must have been a slow enrichment of placers from poor veins, and the placers, when discovered, were quickly worked out. Nothing then remained, except the veins which are too poor for us to work. Traces of gold in the iron and copper pyrites of the zone have been mentioned before, but their extraction would not pay and there is therefore no production of the precious metal in the country at present. Occurrences of free gold in veins are rare. One of them is known near Tchkha'ndror, in Svanetla, Georgia, consisting of veins or pockets of corroded quartz containing incrustations of small grains of gold. The sands from the rivers in this neighborhood usually contain some gold In flakes and seem to Indicate the presence of other similar veins. On the Akstafa River another quartz vein crops out, about 14 Inches thick and running through porphyry. The quartz is spongy and contains native gold, mixed with iron oxide and copper, and the river sands below it, as well as those of the DJaglrtcbsi and other affluents of the Akstafa River, contain placer gold in many places, but only from 1 to 8 grammes per ton-too little to be worked. A similar slightly auriferous zone exists also in the northeastern Caucasus on the river Malka, near Mosdok. All along the banks (if this river there are small outcrops of gold-bearing quartz to be found, but they assay only about 0.3 grammes of gold per ton. The placers formed t ,r them are generally covered by only a foot or two of alluvial, and are them elves up to about 2 yards thick. They consist of greyish-yellow sand overlying a bed of blue clay, below which follows a second layer of gold-bearing sands, and finally porphyry. Unfortunately these placers are not sufficiently rich to pay for their working, nor are the quartz veins at their outcrops, but they have never been touched in depth aLd might there give better results.
MEICURY
Cinnabar exists only in two districts of the northern Caucasus, both situated at high altitudes. The first one contains the mines of Ganal-Vadz and Khpeker-Vadz, near Ku. rush in southern Daghestan. These deposits have been known from ancient times and were formerly worked, but their veins are poor and a regular exploitation has not been maintained In late years.
89
The other occurrence of this mineral exists in the Kuban Province at Fikhot, near Maikop, at an altitude of more than 9,000 feet. It is not worked, although the owner of another similar mine is said to have acquired it with a view to exploitation.
MOLYBDENUM
Molybdenite is known to exist in three places in southern Caucasia. In the Province of Erivan near the village of Bash-Abaran several quartzite veins crop out on the bank of an affluent of the Bambak River. The country rock is syenite, and the veins are partly decomposed and contain molybdenite, besides iron and copper pyrites. A somewhat similar occurrence exists near Novo-Bayazid, near Lake Goktcha. On the Agarak-tchal In the Zangesur district a copper vein was formerly worked lying at the contact between diorite and syenite; it contains the usual iron and copper pyrites, besides a fair percentage of molybdenite, which latter was, however, thrown away as useless. None of these deposltt is worked now, although the more recent demand for molybdenum in connection with the steel industry should now give them the necessary start.
COBALT AND NICKEL
There are several deposits of these metals, chiefly cobalt, in the Province of Elizabetpol in the neighborhood of the Kedabek copper mines. The most important one les at Dashkesan, and belongs, like the adjoining iron mines, to Siemens Bros. The cobalt ore forms irregular nests with epidote, garnet and hornblende in a porphyritic rock, which encloses at the same time magnetic iron ore and occasionally galena and zinc blende. The walls of these nests are themselves colored Iby the cobaltine. Analyses of the mineral gave the following results:
Cobalt ........................ Nickel ........................

Copper .......................
Percent 17.90 0.22
0.21 ,...........Rock
Per cent 17.55 0. 26
Iron .......................... ArSeIc....................

.....................
Pff cent 1.44 97
44.261
Percent 9.85 31.63
40.71
The Siemens works formerly extracted the cobalt from these ores, and produced in 1887, 1 ton 7 hundredwelght of ore; in IS&S, 18 hundredweight; in 1889. 12 tons; in the last year they also produced about 2 tons 18 hundredweight of cobaltiferous copper matte. In recent years the extraction has been almost stationary, amounting to about 12 or 15 tons ier year.
ANTIMONY
Antimony ores are not of frequent occurrence in Caucasia and the deposits known are not worked; all of them are found in the higher parts of the main mountain chain iii Georgia. One occurs near the Gorbalo Mountains, northeast of Tiflls, and shows two veints of stibnite in clay schists, samples containing over 6O per cent of anctalllc antimony. The -ame kind of ore exists also near the Kaslk Mountain, where It was accidentally uncovered by a landslip which happened some years ago. Samples taken from it contained 63.66 per cent of metallic antimony, no arsenic, nor lead, nor any gold. Small quantities of ore were then extracted by tile pea-4ant owners of the land, but no proper working ever took place, and an examination of the place by experts is certainly indicated. The third deposit is known il Svanctia, near Outzerl, northwest of Kutais, Georgia. The veins here also lie In clay schists, and were formerly worked in a smIai way, but have now been Idle for many years, probably on account of the general low prices obtained for antimony ores before the war. Stibnite occurs also in the northern Caucasus, in the village Kholondol, near Grozny. Samples from there contained 61.6 per cent of metal, but further details about the deposit are not available.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOIRGIA As the value of antimony ores has enormously risen and is likely to remain at a high level in future, the exploitation of these mines could now be taken up or restarted on a very profitable basis.
IRON PYRITES
Iron pyrites accompany almost all the other metalliferous deposits of Caucasia and are specially found in connection with the sulphides of copper and zinc, where they are not desired. The large copper works, like Alaverdl, Kedabeg. and the Tchorokh establishments, have installations for separating them from the copper ores during the concentration process. Between 3.000 and 4,000 tons of sulphur ores were thus saved per year by the two former concerns and sent to the sulphuric acid factories in Baku. But In most other cases the sulphur contents of the sulphide ores are lost, as they are roasted in heaps in the open. The occurrence of iron pyrites in connection with chalcopyrite at DjirakiDsor has already been mentioned with the copper mines. A somewhat similar and probably the largest deposit of pure iron pyrites suitable for the regular manufacture of sulphuric acid exists at Tanzout, about o miles from the station Karaklls of the Tiflis-Kars Railway. The ore body crops out on the side of a hill on a length of about 500 yards and a height of 80 yards above the water level of the creek. This enormous outcrop is formed of distinctly separated horizontal beds varying In thickness between 5 and 20 yards, but without the intercalation of any other mineral or foreign element. The only impurity to be found here and there between the surface beds are slight streaks of kaolin, produced by the alteration of the porphyry in contact with the pyrites. The depth to which this enormous stock may advance into the hill has not been ascertained; a trial gallery of 20 yards driven across it did not reach the back wall. Tnking this distance us its utverage thickness, the deposit represents a quantity of two and a half million tons of ore, but in view of the enormous other dimensions the total thickness is probably many times more tlin the length of this small gallery. The ore consists of very small grains or crystals of iron pyrites, cemented together by serpentinous material, and does not present the brilliant appearance of the Spanish ore consisting of larger crystals. Without selection it contains from 39 to 40 per cent of sulphur, bui it is easy to bring the average of cargoes up to 45 per cent and more by throwing out the streaks of kaolin or of less mineralized serpentine which occur at certain distances. Samples analyzed at Tiflis give the following results: Per cent Percent Sulphur ----------------4.334 Magnesia ----------------.012 Iron -------------------40.530 Silica -----------------11.441 Copper --------------------. 028 Arsenic -------------------.0186 Cobalt --------------------. 017 Gold -------------------Trace. Nickel --------------------. 014 Moisture ----------------1.405 Zinc ----------------------. 007 Lead---------------------.015 99.0166 Lime .095 As the ore Is practically everywhere uncovered, except in a few places where there is an overburden of 13 feet 6 inches. it can be quarried and loaded directly into carts. When fresh from the mine it forms compact lumps, but after being exposed to the atmosphere for some time it becomes very friable and falls into sand-like grains. This is an advantage as pyrites have usually to be pulverized for burning;. also this ore does not explode when fired. This deposit has been worked for several years, the whole of its production going to Baku, where there are several factories; producing together about 25,000 tons of sulphuric acid, mostly used in the refining of petroleum. In spite of its position near the railway and cheap extraction the ore has not yet been able to compete with Spanish and Scandinavian pyrites on the western markets on account of high freights, but it can keep its own in southeastern Europe. While the stock of iron pyrites Is practically free from other metals, the porphyrite in contact with it is impregnated with ehalcopyrite and zinc blende which are visible at the outcrops, covered with Iron oxide, partly In the form of red ochre. Compact lodes of copper ore have also been discovered In the
91
porphyrite; one of them between 20 and 24 inches wide has been followed by a small gallery and leads toward the center of the hill, which undoubtedly contains copper. This is the more certain as the opposite side ot the hill was formerly worked as a copper mine and is still called "Miskhana," meaning "copper works" in Tartar language. Anatolian Greeks worked there until driven away by the invasion of Agha Mahomed Khan, Shah of Persia, in 1795. A number of old Asiatic smelting furnaces have been found there, besides extensive old workings and many veins of chalcopyrite which in time may again become interesting. In the south of the same Province of Erivan iron pyrites have also sporadi.ally been extracted in the Nakhitchevan district, but no regular exploitation can be recorded. Iron pyrites occur also in many places in Georgia, especially in tile Rion Valley leading toward the main chain. About 3 miles above Kutais large beds of bituminous shale begin and are visible over considerable distances along the river and in places up to 160 feet thick. In numberless spots they show streaks and thick outcrops of pyrites in large crystals forming compact masses. They are especially numerous and powerful at Ossunella, about 10 miles from Kutals, where the ore could be mined in large blocks, as there are beds of It cropping out with a thickness of 7 feet and more, and composed of practically pure crystals. A similar occurrence exists again higher up in the valley about 14 mile from Kutais and quite near the road leading toward 8vanitla (Georgia). Samples from these p!aces contained 50 to 51 per cent of sulphur and 41 per cent of iron. In fact, this mineral, partly mixed with chalcopyrite, may be found in all the mountain spurs descending from the central Caucasus. In the lower part of the Kasbek Mountain large deposits are known of exceptionally fine crystallization, and the boys sell large specimen crystals to the travelers on the Georgian military road. All this richness is so far unexploited, even scarcely known. However, the deposits in this district might probably be made available for the western consumption, as they are within easy reach of the Transcaucasian Railway and the Black Sea ports. The total production of Iron pyrites in Caucasla was in-s Tons 4,900 1910 -------------------------------------------------------------6,428 1911 -------------------------------------------------------------14,988 1912 ---------------------------------------------------------------7,654 1013 -------------------------------------------------------------8,066 1914 ---------------------------------------------------------------Besides the Iron pyrites there is also a deposit of realgar and arsenical pyrites known and being worked. It is situated at Semi, In the Kagisman district near Kars, and during 1913 and 1914 the extraction amounted to respectively 80 and 50 tons. PART II. NOxNtrITALS COPAL Coal, which forms the lifeblood of most industries, is unfortunately almost absent in Caucasa. It may be sn;d that in Its stead the country possesses its enormous riches in naphtha, which may be used as fuel, and an abundance of water power or "white coal," to be utilized for power purposes, but still, specially for metallurgical purposes, coal or coke are required and must be Imported. The imports, which In former years came mostly from Great Britain, consist now exclusively in coal from the Donetz Basin, which is of good quality, and, besides, protected by an import duty of 7s. Gd. per ton. The former foreign Imports dwindled away, as the following figures show: Tons 2,381 1891 --------------------------------------------------------------1,208 1893 --------------------------------------------------------------1,185 1894 --------------------------------------------------------------1 After this book was published, several large coal beds were discovered in Georgia.
92
1805 189 897..-...
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA -----------------------------------------------------40 -------------------------------------------------55 . . . . ..------------------------------------------------59

0
Tons
)~898--------------------------------------------------
1899 -------------------------------------------------80 1900 ---------------------------------------------------------------55 1903 .---------------50 The only deposit of coal worked In Caucasla occurs at TkvlbuI (Georgia), about 25 miles from Kutals, with which town the collieries are connected by a railway built by the Government. The thickness of the coal seams varies between 1 and 5 feet, and their total thickness amounts in places to as much as 80 feet; they are worked by adits driven into the mountainside. The quq'lty of the coal is inferior, it crumbles on exposure to the air, so that it can not be transported without being briquetted. In this shape it Is used locally for domestic purposes, but is useless for steam raising. On account of these difficulties the exploitation has never been prosperous and has even been shut down at times, until the Government advanced the enterprise about 0.000 in order to Improve the working plant and to erect the patent fuel factory. Nevertheless, these collieries are quite insufficient for supplying the needs of Georgia alone, and several times there has been great scarcity of coal, with exorbitant prices, when the supply from the Don district was interrupted by ice in the Sea of Azoff. The output of Tkvibul during recent years was the following: Tons 1911 --------------------------------------------------------------0.3,032 1912 --------------------------------------------------------------60,647 1913 --------------------------------------------------------------67,027 1914 ---------------------------------------------------------------62,827 1915 --------------------------------------------------------------51252 Another deposit of coal which has attracted some attention occurs at Tkvartcheli (Georgia), about 30 mile from the open bay of Otehemtchliri on the Black Sea. It is said to extend over a rather large area, something like 20 square miles, and to contain an enormous quantity of coal, as the principal scam which has been oqp(.ned up is 14 feet thick. The quality is very good, according to an English expert equal to Monmoulhshire black band. giving from 68 to 70 per cent of coke, and coitalinting only 0.90 per cent of sulphur. The deposits are situnied in a mountainous district and not very accessible, but the railway which was built front Novo Senaki. on the PottTiflis line, to Sukhum, on the Black Sea, was expected to help in overcoming this difficulty. An exploitation comlmny was then formed some years ago, but so far no results are to be recorded. Two more deposits may be mentioned in the Black Sea district of Georgia, one at Khartalt4 In the neighborhood of Poti, and the other near Sukhum. The product of both has more the character of igigte, and at the latter place It lies in very thin seams separated by clay, and contains about 30 per cent of ashes; about 100 tons of it have lately been extracted per year and used on the spot. At Motzamethi (Georgia), near the Tkvilbul colliulres, there is another occurrence of similar. low-grade coal. Four seams crop out in Jurassic sandstone, but their total thickness Is not more than 4 feet. The coal Is very friable and contains 25 per cent of ashes attd I per cent of sulphur, and is only sporadically worked. In the southwestern part of Georgia coal has so far been discovered In one place only, namely, at Olti, near the Turkish frontier. It is said to be of very rich quality, somewhat like Welsh coal, but there are no efficient means of communications in those mountains, although the distance to Batura Is only about 100 miles. Investigations were made during 1913 and 1914, and the small quantities of coal extracted seem to justify the high hopes entertained about this occurrence. In the northern Caucasus in the Kuban district coal is also found at Georgievsk and at Khumarinsk, and between 1,000 and 2,000 tons are extracted In these two places per year for local use; staall quautitles also occur near Vladicaucase and at Naltehlk, samples from the latter place giving 50 per cent of coke, with 1.08 per cent of sulphur.
NATIONAj REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

PETROLEUM
9S
(By far the most important oil fields are those of Baku, which have been fully described in my paper, "The Caucasian petroleum industry and its importance for eastern Europe and Asia.") Besides Baku, Caucasia contains yet several other oil fields which, while having smaller outputs, are still of great importance. All of them lie in the belt formed by the slopes of the main Caucasian chain to the north as well as to the south, while no sources of oil are known in the farther district and in the Lesser Caucasus. The principal field after Baku occurs at Grorny, in northern Caucasin, about 40 miles fiom the crest of the main chain and 50 miles from the Caspian Sea. It Is connected by railway with Vladicaucase in the west, and in the east with Derbent on the Caspian Sea, to which port also a pipe line has been laid. outflows of naphtha were known in this district from antiquity, but the oil was only used for greasing cart wheels. The first exploitation was started in 1855 by a Greek, Tehikaloff., who paid a yearly rent of about 1,250 and produced about 800 tons of oil per annum, which production gradually increased and reached 7,500 tons in 1891. In that year a Tartar barrister formed a company with Belgian capital under the name J. Akhverdoff & Co., and rented plots from the Cossak military administration, paying a rental of about 7 per acre and a royalty of Is. 4d. per ton up to 30,000 tons and 8d. per ton of excess. In 1890 there was a public auction of oil lands and other firms also entered the field. Leases were granted for 24 years at a rental of about 0 per acre, but the royalty rose to 79. 4d. per ton, and In 1899 even to 8s. 10d. per ton. Nevertheless, the industry increased rapidly, and while Akhverdoff's company still produces between 40 and 50 per cent of the total output of the field, other companies have also come Into prominence lately, notably those connected with Colonel Tchermoeff, the President of the Daghestan-Terek Mahomedan Republic. His estate, situated at 5 miles distance from Grozny, has been found to be i very successful field of production. In the beginning of 1914 there were 15 lirms engaged in the exploitation, working 107 plots of a total area of 2,80) acres. They had 278 boreholes, the deepest of which reached the enormous depth of 4,290 feet. This is, in fact, the drawback of this field that boring has to be carried to great depths, but on the other hand the chemical composition of the oil obtained from it is more advantageous than in Baku. as it contains more of the valuable benzene and is easy to distil. About 20 per cent of the production is used for fuel on the spot, the Vladlcaucase Railway Co. being the largest consumer, using the mazout in its engines. This company also possesses the largest refinery in the fiel, able to treat 2,000 tons of naphtha per d(ty. Nobel Bros. have erected another large establishment of a capacity of about 80,000 tons per annum. The lighting oil produced Is mostly used In Russia, while the beazene is exported via Novorossisk. The oil belt of which (troz y forms the center extends for a rather considerable distance, principally westward, and borings have also been started at Tehir-Urt, Belik Tchermoeff, and SundJa, about 25 miles west, and Novi Aldi. and Vossnessensk, about 50 miles northwest of Grozny, mostly with satisfactory results, while some of the operators had not reached oil yet; but soon ifter the outbreak of the war the work had to be stopped everywhere. The conditions of the leases in these new places are more liberal than at Crozny. The second oil zone north of the Caucasian chain occurs near its western end, drawing eastward from the Taman Peninsula over a distance of about 120 miles in the Kuban Province. Simill flows of nnphthat were known in many places, specially along the rivers, and borings were therefore tried in 1880 near the river Gudako, where a fountain was struck at a depth of 183 feet only, producing about 10,000 to 13,000 gallons of naphliba per flay. 'But it soon subsided again, and nothing further was done until about 10 years ago, when fresh borings were started at Maikop, near the Byelaya River. They resulted in 1909 in the sudder outburst of a fountain throwing out boat 50,000 tons of oil during the first fortnight, so that the whole district was flooded with it and great damage done. Only after two months' work was it possible to close the fountain down. This unexpected event caused great excitement; speculators rushed to the spot from all parts, and between 1910 mind 1912 about 30,000 claims were taken up from Cossk administration, ail In London alone over 30 companies were formed to work Malkop oil.
94
Unfortunately the results of the later boiring did not confirm these great expectations, and the present output is a poor remuneration for the great amount of money apent on the field and also on two pipe lines hurriedly laid to the port of Tuapse on the Black Sea. The area under boring Is 60 square miles and the number of bore holes was: Yards 2,012 In 1910, 38 bore holes, with a total depth of -------------------------10,246 In 1911, 80 bore holes, with a total depth of -------------------------In 1912, 195 bore holes, with a total depth of ------------------------38, 539 5.355 In 1913, 331 bore holes, with a total depth of --------------------Anyhow, boring to greater depths, as it is proposed, may yet bring prosperity to this field. Several other oil fields have been opened up in the Kuban Province, apparently with better success. One of them lies at Souvorov-Tcherkess, Temrluk District, about 10 miles from the Black Sea port of Anapa. Three wells had been bored there, two to producing depths, when the war stopped further operations. Another occurs near Krimskaya Station, about 30 miles from Novorossisk, where two British companies are operating and have proved three distinct oilbearing horizons. There were four wells producing and others in boring at the outbreak of the war. Similar borings with good prospects had also been started near Kapustina Balka in the same zone. Naphtha also tccurs in Dagliestan, hiear the Caspian Sea, where small quaititles had been extracted for local purpo es in various laces. Before the war some of the powerful Baku firms started boring at the village of Berekel, o:ily 4 miles from the seashore. The results were excellent, as several fountains began to flow frcm comparatively shallow depths, producing oil of the highest quality, which contains more kerosene than the Baku product. This field will probably justify the high expectations placed upon it. On the south side of the main Caucasus chain there aie also indications oi naphtha in many places, in several of which borings have been begun, but the producing stage has nowhere been reached yet. Such outflows, which indicate a possible oil field, exist near the Station Gheran, on the Tiflis-11aku line, in the Province of lE;lizabetpol. BCsides the small wells dug by the inhabitants for tbtaining oil for their own uses, no work has been done on them. In Kakhetia (Georgia), east of Tiflis, a low chain of mountains rises between the Alazan and Iora Rivers, parallel with th 3 main ridge, and consisting of slate and schists, with sandstone in depth. In these hills naphtha oozes out in a great number of places, and was aiso formerly obtained by the inhabitants from hand-dug wells. The attention of foreign operators was attracted to this field only when the Kakhetlan Railway, which runs along three sides of this mountain spur, was built. To wells were then begun there near Chatma by a British company, but daring the Tartar-Armenian riots they were destroyed, and work remained in abeyance until 1910, when boring was taken up again and pushed to 660 feet, where the oil was met. Another British company hs taken up oil lands in Ildokani, in the same neighborhood. Two wells were sunk, and oil was struck shortly before tile outbreak of the war, when, however, further operations had to be stopped. In both these places boring is easy, as there are no floating sans nor any influx of water, and the naphlha Is very pure and light. specific gravity. 0.8,50. The borings are at about 4,3S0 feet above the sea, anw bo-ing and pumping are done on the American system, which is cheaper than that which must be used in Baku. This field seems, therefore, to have all the elements of success when normal circumstances are restored in the contry. Further west in Georgia we meet another interesting occurrence of napitha on tile Khanis-Tzkall River, south of Kulais. The outlows have always been known, as they partly occur in the middle of the river, but they were clearly confirmed over a con-.iderable distance in the coursne of Fome public works executed a few years ago. The shores of the river con,4ist of thick bieds of -anl( and Eocene s allstones which in the place where the naphtha breaks out most abundalttly. are bent into the shape of an arch. This anticlinal formation of the beds in the Eocene proves, as in other fields, the presence of naphthla deposits. and tlie outflows
are caused by the pressure of water filtering through from the surface and displacing the oil upwards. The sandstone which, as it Is visible in the lower parts of the valley, consists of several beds of varying composition divided by beds of sand, is quite impregnated with naphtha, as well as the sands. The naphtha in its natural state has a brown color with ollve-green reflection and is very fluid. By distillation it gives a high percentage of light oils, benezene, petrol, and kerosene; it does not contain any paraffin nor any acids, and would, therefore, be a highly valuable material. For all these reasons it seems highly desirable that this place should be thoroughly tested; it is easily accessible and not far from the railway. Another interesting oil field, which has not yet reached the producing stage, occurs near Ozurgethi, in Gouria (Georgia), about 25 miles from Batum, and only 5 miles from the Black Sea. Naphtha is here found superficially in gray sands and marls of the Sarmatian formation which occupies the central and western parts of the field and is partly covered by the Miocene in the south. The eastern part Is formed by the upper Eosenw, while the northeast alone shows crystalline rocks. The district is hilly and extends from west to east between the Soupsa and Sepa Rivers; the heights reached in the west toward the sea are not considerable, but In the east the mountains increase sensibly and are covered with forests and bushes. The abundant rains in this zone have cut many ravines between the hills, and the naphtha appears in many places on the banks of these streams, oozing out from gray clay and marl schists or from dark-gray soft sandstones. Although the outflows oZ,oll had been known for a long time, boring was 1egun only in 1911 by a Bukq firm, and at a depth of 63 feet oil was struck. This event gave a great Impetus to the field, and several British and other companies were formed to take up plots In the most promising places. Drilling was started on three spots during 1913, but the war interrupted the work before any results were obtained. The exceptionally favorable position of these fields in the neighborhood of 'the Black Sea makes them specially interesting, and the work in them will undoubtedly be continued as soon as circumstances permit. The following table gives the comparativ- outputs of crude naphtha in the principal Caucasian fields:
1911 Tons
1912 191311914
Baku ................................................... 1 7.471,017 7,770,844 Grozny ................................................. 1,214.011 1,011,485 Malkop ................................................ 126,407 149,207 Pagbestan ............................................. I 593 560 Eliabetpo ...................................... .-------. 20 279 Tifis -----------------------------------------------------------700
Tonsa
7,4S2,3i8 1,1 5, 775 -,239 614 173 724
Tonls
6,921,878 1,5,,824 71, , -4 1,22 5 75 .581
Tom
Asphalt, or bitumen, occurs Ini many place. in Ceorgia, as it uswdly aCompants the outflows of naphtha, with (tie formation of which It is closely (.onnected, forming nests or impregnating the tertiary formations which were Inecutioned in connection with petroleum. There iN an important zrJe of asphailic outflows in thxe district of Notanei4, in the neighborhood of the Gourla oil borings, where these hydrocarbons exist in different modifications in the fluid, semiflufd, and solid state. In several places enormous beds or alluvial sands are permeated and tlggliotll. crated by a soewhat ilid asphalt, the composition Ielng front 13 to AS per cent of asphalt, combined with about 80 per cent of sandI. It sctis lit list sight to tie a natural road material, but, unfortunately, can not be lllr1rdened suf ciently for that purpose by heat without destroying its lihidint qualitles. However, the asphalt contained in It could easily be extracted by boiling the material in water. when the rand falls to the bottom while the wsplmlt float., and Is then, according to the experiments of a specialist, equal to the best Syrian bitumen. The same neighborhood contains two other bitumninous materials. one being the mineral called gilsonite, resembling anthracite, or jet, but very light, being 96153-26-----7
NAflOSAkT., hEPUILTC OF GEOP0IA

in fat natural hardened' petroleum, and containing 84.66 per cent of carbon. It Is found in numerous veins up to more than 1 foot thick, and In nests, but it ha's only sporadically been exploited, although it is a valuable product for making black varnish. The other material is visibly of the same family as the gilsonite, but in a semfluid condition, and of such tenacious nature that it can be drawn out in threads many yards in length. In this condition the material would also be useful for varnishes, but the difficulty of handling it makes it commercially Impossible. The mountains along the Goakwara River, which falls into the Black Sea near Gagri, Ga., are formed of enormous beds of limestone, the lower onm of which are also impregnated with bitumen. The bitumenous outcrops are visible along the valley over a distance of about 2 miles, and, although not continuous, reach everywhere to the same height, and therefore seem to derive their impregnation from a common source or reservoir inside of the mountains, Samples contained from 15 to 20 per cent of bitumen, but were found too had far grinding and using as paving material. They had, however, been taken from pieces lying in the open, and probably do not represent the rock to be found in the interior of the mountain; and in view of the excellent position of the deposition near the seashore it should certainly be fully examined. Bitumen in the state of a heavy liquid oozes out in several places from these outcrops and has been found to contain ichthyol, a moqt valuable oil used medl. ally against rheumatism, etc.. An analysis of the liquid bitumen, made In Petrograd. gave the following result:
Per cen t
Hydrogenouq matter containing lchtbyol -----------------------Hydrogenous matter not containing ichthyol --------------------Water --------------------------------------------------------------Sulphur -------------------------------------------------------------Lime ---------------------------------------------------Alumina -----------------------------------------------------------
20.34 52.80 21.50 2..50 1.87 0.W,
99.97 This oil could probably also be extracted from the impreg-nated limestone, as it Is distilled out of some shale in the only other place where it is known t occur, in Seefeld, in the Austrian Tyro). In view of its great value and scarcity (the Austrian company sells it as a monopt)ly), it should be an additional incentive to test thu. whole deposit, in which, according to the experts, the presence of naphtl s also probable. The o.,, y district where asphalt is really being -xtracted for paving purposes, although in small quantities, is that of Signaklh. in Georgia, where now also borittgs for oil are being made. The exploitations exist at Murzani, Kodurnia, Eldar, and near Chatma. and the products are used locally and in the neighboring Tifis, niiie olherwise all the asphalt employed for public works is brotoght from other districts.
NATURAL OAS
This product, which, like asphalt, is usually also connected with petroliferous districts, is of much rarer occurrence In Ceucasia than in the American and Canadian oil fields. While there are more or less important escapes of gas from every borehole, specially in their initial stages of production, natural gas without petroleum has so far been struck only in sonic places In northern Caucasia, specially at Stavropol. In 1909, during boring operations for water in the center of the town, gas was discovered at a depth of 190 yards; It was found to be a natural hydrocarbon, fit for all heating and lighting purposes, as it breaks out in many places in the United States and Canada. Other boreholes were therefore made, and the flows of gas connected with thr exlsing canalization, with such good success that all firing and lighting in the whole tawn has since then been done with the aid of this gas, dispensing entirely with coal and other fuels. As the natural gas is mostly an Indication of the presence of naphtha in depth, a company was formed in 1912 for trying to reach the latter. It was -stimated that this might be possible at a depth of about 700 yards, and in 1913 638 yards had been bored and the familiar signs of the presence of naphtiha were observed when the war stopped the completion of the trials.
MIAMM
,-Ida
VILLAGE
D=
KASBEK
' 16 -. 6 e. t 4
BEST AVAILABLE COPY
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA In the district of Labinsky in the same neighborhood another company was formed before the war for boring for gas and oil and acquired full rights from the Cossack village for five years for the sum of about 32,000, but no results have been arrived at yet. At Grozny natural gas from the oil wells Is now also used to a certain extent.
SULPHUR
The most important deposit of native sulphur known in Caucasia occurs in the Province of Erivan, about 30 miles from the railway line running to Persia. It Is comparatively easy of access, the greater part of the road from the railway passing through a well-cultivated plain, whence the mountains rise gradually. The deposit has been opened up only superficially, and beds of sulphur have been disclosed in two adjacent creeks through which small rivers have cut rather deep winding courses. The sulphur occurs either in the shape of crystals in beds of gypsum or as amorphous masses in metamorphic limestone. Many of the crystals are well developed, almost transparent, and up to 1 inch long, while the amorphous minerals permeate the cavities and pores of the limestone. The deposits are confined to the more recent sedimentary strata and are specially associated with the gypsum and marls of the saliferous deposits and with similar rocks of the "Tertiary period. In the first valley there is an outcrop only about 100 yards from the main road and showing on both sides of the creek; it dips vertically and forms a bed of 8 feet in thickness, carrying 40 per cent of sulphur. At a short distance up the valley another outcrop Is seen, 2 feet width of practically pure sulphur. Further up in the valley three more outcrops occur, of widths ranging between 2 feet and 5 feet; t'ey contain about 40 per cent sulphur, except the last one, which sents very rich indeed, as clean sulphur was exposed on opening up the outcrops. Altogether in this valley there are five distinct outcrops, all of good workab.e width, with the same strike and dip, and carrying values from 40 per cent ul-wards. In the second valley we have at the bott-m a very fine outcrop which strikes into the mountain with a width of over 10 feet. and carries over it wbole Width a value of at least 65 per cent of sulphur. Higher up In the valley there are two more outcrops, 2 feet and 5 feet wide, respectively, and-containing from "35to 10 per cent of sulphur. East of them. in a deep cutting, there occurs what is probably the richest deposit of all. It has a width of 8 feet and contains pure sulphur over its whole width; on being uncovered it even irproved. It strikes into the mountain, and from its appearance should give a very large output. Within 100 feet from it there are two more outcrops of got1 workable widths and carrying high valut-a. As all these outcrops have been examined only superficially, it is impossible to calculate their total contents with any degree of certitude, but from what has been ascertained so far about 800,000 tons of sulphur are assured at the surface. The total is undoubtedly very much higher, and other beds will probably also be found yet. These deposits are undoubtedly much richer than thoe of Sicily, where ore with as little aN 25 per cent of sulphur is being extracted under great difficultie.s. A sulphur refitiery established in connection with them could therefore easily compete with Sicily and produce all the different qualities of refined sulphu.- which are now belug imported in southeastern Europe and Traioztenpin.. ','be quantites r,ccived in the ports of Batum and Tuapse alone amount to about 5.00 tons (of raw brimstone per year. and to about double that quantity of refined sulphur, mostly in the shape of flowers of sulphur used in thi vineyards of Georgia. The raw brimstone is required for the manufacture of pure sulphuric acid, as the product obtained front iron pyrites, although cheaper. Is unsuitable f9r many purposes of the chemical industry on account of its usual tenour of ars.enic. The u. of refined mine sulphur will. therefore, increase with the e.xpaision of the chemical industry. and specially te manufacture of wood pull) by the sulphite process, which was projected in the country before ihe var. Sulphur also exists in Daghestan. in the Samaur district, but it is diflicult of access: and the same may al' be said of tihe deposits known in the Askbalad district of the Transcaspian territory, which are situated fnr from any means of tra:-jtrt.

SALT
Salt Is produced, mostly under government admininstraton, as rock salt, and also its sea salt on the Azoff and Caspian Seas. The production was as follows In 1909: Rock salt: Ton Kulpa mines, Province of Erivan ----------------------------12,350 Nakhitchevan mines, Province of Erivan ----------------------3,322 Kagisinan mines, Province of Kars ---------------------------4, 425 Olti mines, Province of Mars -----------------------------------436 Sea salt: Ijaku Province -----------------------------------------------11,123 Stavropol Province --------------------------------------------1,024 Daghestan and Terek Provinces --------------------------------304 Total ------------------------------------------------------32,984 The total production from these sources in recent years amount toTons
1911 --------------------------------------------------------37,830 1912 --------------------------------------------------------------31,980 1913 -------------------------------------------------------------23,484 1914 -------------------------------------------------------------27,497 Glaubersalt, sulphate of sodf, is extracted from the lakes in the Batalpaabinsk district in northern Cautasia. In 11)11 about 800 tons were l)roduced, and used by the glass works near the Station Mineralnala Voda. This mineral also occurs near Mukhravani, in Georgia, but is not worked.
PORTLAND CEMENT
The Caucasian cement factories are mostly situated on the Black Sea shore near Novoro.sisk, where inexhaustible quantities of suitable limestones are available in the mountains bordering immediately on the sea, while the latter affords every facility for transport. Ti first factory was built in 1890, and in 1896 a Pranco-Russ an company erected another at Guelendjlk, soon to be followed by a third, the three having a total producing capacity of about 300,000 tons per year. These three companies held the field until 1912 when the Black Sea Kuban Cement Co. "Beton" erected a factory near the station Donelny, on the north side of the mountain chain, where soon afterwards yet several others were being laid down. At the outbreak of the war there were therefore nine factories working, or in working order, 4 on the Black Sea shore, and 5 inland in the Kuban utstrict. The latter factories also have at their di.piosal huge deposits of cement stone of superior quality: its formation and composition is quite regular with scarcely any undesirable ingredients, which makes the extraction and calclna. tion easy. The analysis of this raw material shows it to be similar to that used for the manufacture of the celebrated hydraulic cement of Le Theli, near Marseille, which was used for the construction of the Suez Canal and for a great number of hydraulic work, in the Mediterranean, as it re.4,4ts the action of sea water. All thse advantages. combinil with (heap tranport, make it therefore probable that this part of the Caucasus will become the most Important center of the cement industry for the whole of the Black Sea and 'iranscasplan districts. In the noriheatern part of Cauca.-ian, near Naltchi, the manufacture of cement would als4, be Possible, as the raw materials are also available in the shpe of marl and of clay of the requisite composition-.
RFTRACTORY AND EIUI'.ING \IIS
Fireclay is found In many places in Georgia, anl is worked into refractory trlcks, specially near Shrn,,, in the P-.uvince of Kutais, where a company of the same nale has been established for some tine. It produced, In 1914, 954 tons of fire bricks, aud two othr sniall concerns working at Tseva In the same zone inanufactured in the same year 291 tons.
99
As one of the largest consumers of fire bricks in Its smelters the Soci td Industrielle et MWtallurglque also has a plant for making them near Alaverdl and produced: 1911 1912
I 1913 1914
ToW. 4 Tons Tons Tons Fire bricks ..................................................... 1,655 1,817 1,938 1 2,305 Silica brick.... .................................... 4,781 1 804 8S 2382 Siemens Bros. also made their own fire-bricks at Kedabeck i considerable quantities. Nevertheless, there is still a certain amount of fire clay and of finished fireproof articles imported every year for special purposes.
ONYX MARBLE
Caucasla, which contains so many metalliferous minerals, can also supply this rare marble which is of purely ornamental use. It is a pure carbonate of lime which was slowly deposited from hot or acid springs containing lime in solution. Such springs, saturated with carbonic acid from the depth.3 of the earth, are most frequent in the southern parts of the country, and the deposits of onyx marble occur in the same zone. The most important one of them lies near the village of DJardji, about 10 miles north of the Station Bash-Kadiklar on the Tiflis-Kars Railway. It forms the bottom of a dry creek and can be worked as an open quarry, containing apparently about 60,000 cubic meters of material. The stone itself is transparent, with wavy lines or bands of all sides of gray, green, blue, pink, and brown, producing very pretty effects. Blocks (an be extracted up to 5 feet in length and 3 feet wide; large slabs are used for mural decoration, smaller ones are cut up for clock cases, paper weights, etc., but there is no work done in the quarry at present. Another deposit of onyx marble is found in tile same district soutl of Erivan, it the village Agbash. on a spur descending from Mount Ararat. Here the stone is not banded, but of a more uniforI bluish or whitish color, and large blocks are rare. A similar stone exists in the Potzkhoff district near Aklaltezlk, It Georgia. The quarry is now covered by a landslip, but it was formerly worked by the Turks, and the former mosque of Akliltzik is paved with slabs extracted from It. The smaller stones and chips have also been ised li Georgia by he manufacturers of carbonic acid and mineral waters, for the production of varbonle acid gas, as the material Is absolutely plure, and for this purpo.-e the stole Is usually ground.
INFUsOPIAL. EAIRITH
Infusorial, or diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, is being worked In two places in Georgia, nmely, oil the Suram Mountain, near the town of the sae name, and at Kissatib, about 6 miles south of Akhaltzik. The Kissatib deposit crops out on three sldes of a mountain spur descending from a high peak, in one part its a long witte band 4,n the steep side of a sandstone cliff. The beds are horizontal, and the principal one has a length of about 1,100 yards and an ascertained width of 770 yards, which probably extends farther into tlhe mountain. The depth is not known yet. as ill the central workings, which are all in open cast, the bottoln baes not been reached at 90 feet. A -uri,,us feature of this delosit is that while it was formed at the bottom of a lake it i:; now situated about 440 yarl, above tlhe valley. overlaid and protected by a huge bed of green sandstone. The whole region has, been thisturbed by voleati,, eruptions. and the bottorn of tile lake was, formed by a How of porous lava whieh, where accessible, is alioit 30 feet thick amid repo-es itself on gray b:zv.lt. The infusorial carth is then covered ly :t bed of standstole of 11 thlekiie;t of frm !'0 to 100 yards, on top of which there are again several sirlaller layers ,if infnorial earlith. the whole being cverih lIy to-riitry tllil~mn.
100
The infus oral earth found in these upper beds forms a quite unique material, being intersected by bands of gray and brownish colors formed by clay and ferruginous impurities and giving it a very pretty appearance. But the principal bed below the sandstone Is of a pure white color and consists of almost pure silica, with not more than from 2 to 4 per cent of Impurities, mostly alumina and lime, iron oxide being less than 1 per cent. This purity is undoubtedly due 0o the protection of the overlying sandstone, which at the same time has also had the effect of compressing the naturally soft and light deposit. The specific gravity of the material is therefore about 0.65, while that of the earth from the Scotch and Norwegian deposits, which lie on the surface or in water. Is usually about 0.3 to 0.4. The general lightness of this earth is connected with its production, as it consists of the siliceous shells of minute diatoms living in the water, which under the inicro.eolie reveal the most wonderful shapes and ornamentallons; remains of fossilized fishes are also sometimes found between them. OIn account of Its uansual compactness the Kisatib earth can be quarrjed in large blocks and sawed up into brick-shaped irces. but the greater part of it I. delivered in inmps and pwder. At present it is prinellally used for Insulating puriKoses in .teana and heating installations, either powdered and applied like mortar or in the shape of the above-mentioned bricks, most of it going to lHak for .meb purposes. The export to oth, r parts and to western Europe. where the purity of the material would make it useful also In the chemical and otl,er influtries, cani only be undertlakn when the railway to Akhaltzik has been built. TJhe exploitation. in which a l)utch company was at one time interested, is now carried on in a small way by the original owners, but will without doubt expand when better means of transport are available. The whole prodvtlon of the two mines Is used in Caucasla. and amounted to: Tolls 1911 ----------------------------------------------------590 1912 ----------------------------------------------------839 1913 ----------------------------------------------------411 1914 ----------------------------------------------------3S7
T1'lae natural baritnti sulplhate or heavy spar occurs in many places ini titorghl. special. in ti 'rovine of Kutais, where the veins or bds of the mineral acconipany baalts traversing the diorites. Such deposits are known at Lekverethi, icar Kutalis, at Pull, in the Shlaropan district, and at Ontehelshi, O.sunelf, Dertehi, Bali, Mekhveni, Gabiethi, and Tchashlethi, in the Letchk-hum district. Small exploitations exist in all these places, whose combined outputs during recent years were as follows: Ton. 19 10 -. ---------------- ------------- ----- ---- ---------- 1,763 1911 -...--------------------------------------------------1,255 1912 ------------------------------------------------------1,229 191: --------------------------------------------------1,824 1.14 .------------------- ----------------------------------890 Only one grinding mill exists in the neighborhood for reducing the mineral to powder suitable for paint manufacturers : it is situated at Shanethi and had the following productions: 742 1I1 .....................------------------------------------863 ..---------------------------------------------------1911 .. 779 191--------------------------------------------------782 --------------------------------------.-19l% 51 ll ..---------------------------------------------------Alt this material was used locally, but as tie mineral is everywhere quite white and pure and available i huge quantities. these exploitations could tdvantagouxly be very much extended. Ul-t'o-date grinding machinery is the only retq remnent for producing the powder also for the western markets at a competitive price. Similar beds of Itaryta are also known at Buskhanr., )asaaltl, and Tchovdar lin the Pirovince of Elizabetpol, but no work whatever has been done on them.
NATIONAL BEPUBLIG OF GEOROIA

ASB TOS
_191
Asbestos occurs in several places in Transcaucasia, principally at Vshinevl in the SRropan district of Georgia, where small quantities are being extracted. The mineral is there found in veins which cross the talcose schists forming the steep banks of the Bshineula River and crops out in various places at about 400 to 500 yards above the water. The veins are from I to 3 inches wide, and as the asbestos fibers are disposed transversly across them, their length usually varies between the same limits. Their color is green or greenish white and they can easily be separated, but are unfortunately often brittle. Other deposits of asbestos also exist in the Letchkum district of Georgia, In the super parts of the Tskhenis-Tskall valley; the veins a9o lie in schists of Devonian formation and are similar to the above, but no extraction has so far been tried. Samples of acbestos have also been brought from the village Mysogorosk. near Shusha. in the Province of Elizabetpol. The product of all these places, although sometimes of long fiber, is mostly rather stiff, like bristles, and can not be twisted or woven. For this reason there is not much use for it. except as a binding material in connection with infusorial earth for manufacturing insulating plaster for steam pipes, etc. But, as so far only surface work has been done, it is quite possible that the nature of the fiber may change in depth and become softer, like the product of the Urals and Siberia, and further exploration is therefore desirable.
LITIOGRAPHIC STONES
Limestones fine and uniform enough for lithographic purposes are know to -xist only in a very few places, in southern France, Poland, Ada Minor, etc., but they have nowhere been able to replace those coming from Solenhofen, In Bavaria. which have been almost exclusively employed by the lithographers of the whole world. The discovery of a stone which really equals the Bavarian and can perfectly replace it is, therefore, of the highest importance. A very extensive deposit of such stone exists at Amlivi, about 24 miles from Tiflis and 8 miles from the railway. The beds are clearly visible on the niantain side from its foot to a height of about 7T) feet, and represent an enormous stock of superposed layers of limestone. Most of it would be suitable for lithographic purposes, as it is of the futest texture without In. clusions of crystals or other admixtures, and of equal density all through without waviness. The colors vary between light yellow, gray, grayish blue, and green, and large slabs can be extracted of any of these colors, although the light ones are the most desirable, as the contrast between their color and the transfer ink makes the work of the lithographer easier. 'erfect stones of large size, 4 by 6 fei-t. 11d correslmonding thickness, have been extracted. while the smaller sizes, of 2 by 3 fet and 5 or 6 inche. thick, are inexhaustible. These stones have le t'ractially em tel ly 1i11.vartagraphic e.stabll'lnent of the former Russian general staff at Tiilis, which declared thln equd to the be-it promlu.ts of the Solenilofen qutarrie., whit.h hitherto had no rivals n the world. Similar trials were also made In Paris by an expert professional lithograjlher who also deiared thtit th -e stones can tidvatitageously.replace those from Bavaria and are even superior to then with regard to density. The fact fint large-sized stones suitable for heavy printing machines can be obtained Is also highly important, as such sizes do not exist any sore at Solenhofen. This quarry has therefore a great future, and will undoubtedly become the center of a new export imlustry for Georgia.
PUMICE STONE
In view of the great vlai(c activity which characterIze.4 lhe Cucasian region, it may seem surprising that pumice stone Is almost tilssing in the great variety of mineral protlucts thrown tip by the volcanoes. So far it hiss bien discovered only in one Ilace. namely at Malaya-Kutnia, near Kars. Thi.s deposit Is only partially opened up, mid ,cons,ists of several superposed beds of pumice divided lby detser valesinic proihtels and covered by a thin layer of earth, so that the extraetion Is casy. Thie lpnice is of grayish-white color and of the uoual spongy ve.-i(utr -ostsisten, \%hi.h. however, vtries and ini parts becomes
102
P.lmost as dense as a sandstone. The porous layers form an excellent abrasive for all the usual purposes, as it "bites" well and is resisting. Small quantities of It have beed Pent to this country, but the cost of transport made a regtilar business difficult. Before the war a small exploitation took place for Causasia and Russia, the product being sold in lumps and also In powder for abrasives, polishing Materials, soaps, etc.
8OAPSTONX
Soapstone or tale accompanies in several places in Georgia the intrusions of serpentine, and being soft when freshly extracted is sometimes carved into kitchen uten.-ils. etc. A curious mineral of similar description is found near Akhaltzlk, in southern Georgia. It is of grayish-white color, and soft and unctuous to the touch. With water It forms an emulsion somewhat resembling soap water. and it can also be made into a kind of paste which the local shoemakers use in their work Instead of glue.
MICA
Mica exists In several places of the central Caucasian chain, but only samples have so far been extracted from then.
GRAPhIITE
Deposits of graphite are known to exist in several places in Georgia, specially on the Suram Mountain, near the station Kharagouli, and at the village Tchumathelethi, near Gori. Neither of these deposits is worked. The one on the Suram Is very extensive, but the graphite is of a very fine consistency and a dull aspect, like soot. It does not form flakes, and can therefore not be used for crucibles or similar purposes. Its analysis produced:
Per cvynt
50.59 Graphite ----------------------------------------------. 47. 57 Ashes -------------------------------------------------1.1 Moisture ----------------------------------------------The earthy impurities are therefore considerable, but more useful material might possibly be found by exploring the deposits in depth. A similar mineral is found near DJlmara, in the northern Caucasus, where a bed crops out over a length of about a mile. and contains apparently very large quantities. The quality seems about the same as on the Suram, the carbon contents being from 50 to CO per cent. It Is uscd locally in foundries cnd also for paints.
DISTRIBUTION
As Russia herself forms an enormous market, most of the mineral and metallurgical products of Caucasia were, before the war, sold in that country, the exports beng principally confined to manganese ore and part, of t.ie petroleum produce ion. Copper, to begir with, was in great demand in Russia, and the production of the country could not cope with it; before the war about one-third of the consumption had to be imported. mostly in electrolytic copper for electrical purposes. During the war tiese import.4 rose as follows:
Tons
4,576 1914 --------------------------------------------------10,778 1915 --------------------------------------------1916_-------------------------------------------------23.548 the latter chiefly from the United States and Japan. In order to keep the copper Industry In the country the former Government Imposed a duty of about S33 per ton on imported copper, and in consequence of this protection the Rugsifin price of the metal was. before the war, always from 25 to 30 above the London quotations. On the other hand the export
I
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OBOROIA
103-
of copper ores was charged with a duty of 68s. per ton, and in view of these inducements the copper smelting and refining was entirely kept in the country. Most of the Caucasian producers belonged to the Foreign Copper Syndicate, which was formed in 1907, andl controlled about 94 per cent of the total Russian production. For similar reasons lead and zinc were also protected by heavy duties, the former being charged with about 8 and the latter with 11 per ton, and the export of their ores was prevented by the same export duty of 6 s. per ton. These metals were also easily absorbed by the Russian market, which, besides, bad to import large quantities, as the following figures show: 1914 Imports ofled ..........................................................
Imports of linc ...........................................................
1915
1918
23 23,118
11,840
T ,6913,1123.59 2405 ,
14.328 14.137
The various other nonmetallic minerals, including coal are all consumed in the country, or almost in the area of their production, although with proper transport facilities several of them, like baryta, Infusorial earth, pumice stone, iron pyrite, etc., might advantageously be brought on the western markets. As to the minerals which are being exported, manganese ore stands first in Importance, by far the greatest part being shipped to foreign countries, not only in Europe, but also largely to the United States. The portion used in Russia is quite inconsiderable, and only goes to the I)onetz Basin in the Ukraine, the steelworks in the Urals using local ores. The following figures show the proportion of Georgian manganese ores used in the Ukraine: 1005 To
Total production ....................................
1910
-To6T9,283
1911 -TonsW,013
1912
1913
To r
911 699
Tons
!,079,6M
Sent to Ukraine ..................................... . 44,C.20
34623 r
29,.3
9363 18:69
9,959
Most of the foreign trade in the 'ore was before the war done by export firms established in Poti and Datum. which In some easen owned and exploited their own mines, but mostly bought the ore from the small producers and made contracts with the smelters. Tile decrease of the consumption of Georgian manganese ore in the Ukraine during recent years was Citu ed by the sieial favors enjoyed by the Nikopo mnanganese mines, in which the Russian Randd dukes wece largely Interested. In tile petroleum industry the proportions between export 1mid hone consumflption are to-day entirely different. In the beginning the export trade was also largely preponderating, and was be:ng fostered by the Russian Govern1meat, but Since the beginning of this century it has dwindled down considerably, partly on account of the increasing foreign conlietitill and new sources of supply, partly ill con-equelce of the eatirnimsly inerea ed consumption In ltu~sia. In faiet. of the enormious quantities of petroleuni products which are every ycar extracted ill Baku, only a snlall percentage is now expor ed, tile great bulk being used for home consumption. Thus, during the yer 1912, Baku exported abroad only about 500,000 tons, or 5.5 per cent, of Its production of kerosene; 210,000 tons, or 2.3 per cent of its production of lubricating oil; and 10.000 tons, or 1.9 per cent. of its production of benzine, while tile remaining 90 per cent were u.sed parly on the spot aid in Caucasia, but mostly in the interior of ltul. ia, with which ltaku has excellent coulncctions by neals of the Volga River. The products of tile Malkop atid Grozny petroleum fields are also mostly used in their own districts and in Russia. except the benzene and kerosene extracted from the Grozny naptlia. of which lbout 200,000 tons l'r annum were exported before the war through the port of Novorossisk. 90153- -24 --- S
] (J4 :NATIONAL
REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA,
LABOR,
miners, and' laborers employed in the different mine .fields are of different nationalities. While the Georgians predominate in Georgia, and specially in the manganese mines, we find In the southwestern districts and the Tehorokh Valey mostly Mohamedan Georgians or Lazes, and In the southeast many'Tartars, Persians, etc. Generally speaking, their economic conditions are satisfactory, and, if we except Baku, strikes have ben rare. In the small mines which work only spasmodically, a primitive state of things exists yet, the men dividing their labor between the mines and the fields, but the large mining companies have in late years made enormous improvements of ery description for the welfare of their men. The Association of Manganese Producers of Tehlaturi wits one of the pioneers in this direction, and provided not only a hospital with 40 beds for the use of its workers, with a school, public library, etc., but also organized the public services of the district, supplying water, light, etc. The money thus spent came from the tax levied on the manganese export under Government control, but on the other hand the sums spent by the private mining companies came out of their own pockets. In order to accommodate large numbers of miners the companies had in most cases to build houses for them; for instance, in Dzansul there are several large buildings, each with lodgings for 60 workmen, besides house es for the staff. In the neighboring Kvartzkhana a similar building was being erected before the war. The necessities of life were provided every week from Batum and sold in the companies' shops at prices fixed by a committee of workmen. The Soclt6 ilndustrielle et Mftallurgique has also made great improvements in Its various establishments, almost regardless of'expense. in Alaverdi the houses of the workmen have been vastly improved, and a publle bath was installed. At the smelter at NManess dwellings were erected for over 40 families; a school for 100 children was also maintained, as well as a savings bank, and when the war broke out a hospital with 28 beds for woundol soldiers was installed and maintained by contributions of the company and the workmen, amounting to about 1,500 rubles per month. Hospitals arc attached to almost every mine, with competent men for rendering first aid. and doctors within call, if rot permanently engaged. Such hospitals besides those already mentioned, exist also at Kulabeg, Zangemur, Beshaul, %kvlbulI. and Alagir. The latter establishment is also much concerned wih the economic welfare of its workment. who have also established a savings bank, which in the beginning of 1915 had 110 members and deposits amounting to 70,203 rubles.
-The
1911 Total number of workmen in Georgia and Caucsia .............

Employed in the p~rinc'ipal inints:
1 c12 19.125
1513 26.345
1914 12.911 C, A G 3, 07 ,.f09 o f SC, I 1.244 652 24 C3, o 270

12 651
12, 508
('opp r---------- --............. ............................. 7, X .0 . .1.414 Sil ,er, Ic.sul, and zinc ....................... t. , 1 00 0............... x75 M anganese ................................................. 2, !3 3, 27 3. 2, CU J ....................................................... 655 , 710 Sulphur ores ...............................................0 ' 112 Bar.ta (mi n s t.nd indi)--, gr ............................. -- . 143 l fti r,rii earth ............................................ 114 15 , 9uarries ................................................... 1,574 , I. 2"1 (ement stone. ......... .. ..................................... - 7 2 1 072 Number of mining a cients ................................ ' 490 795 Ofwbich Ofh e wcre fital ..................................27 32 40 Compo-nsations 10M] ........................................ -r ,0--1 .0. Lle,
The petroleum Industry, which in Caucasia overshadows all the' other mining enterprises, being mostly concentrated in Baku, where racial dilllculties are very pronuneed, has been much more disturbed by labor questions than the mineral ore mine,;, and has been seriously affected by the strikes and excesses of 1905 and 1913, as it was mentioned In the special monograph on this industry. The figure.,4 ililable oi page SO give an appr, xinate Idca of the numbers of men employed in the different Iilnes during iu-emt years. They do not include the oil Industry, nor die Pnt-, engaged in trawport work.
NATIONAL IEP1)BLIC OF OEOROLA
105
Concerning the petroleum industry we give here only the following statistics:
__ _ _ _ _I
1911
1912 .
... 1913
1914
__
_____________________I
Number caworkmen engaged: In Baku district .......... ..................... .......... .......... .......... In Terek Province ............................ 4,720 ! 4,O0 7,105 In Dabestan Province ............................... 35 33 (A In Kuban Province .................................. I1,199 1.2-52 1,079 In Tils Province .......................................... .......... 32 57 1 Elizabetlpol... ............................... 101 108 17 Number of accidents ............................... 512 886 977 Number of deaths ............................................. 24 14 6 Compensations p.id .................................. roubles..i 41,7581 38,284 43,314 PARTICIPATION OF FOREIGN CAPITAL
40.385 8,158 32 982 811 312 18 120.062
All the large mining enterprises of Caucasia, in which boring for oil must, of course, be included, have almost exclusively been started and maintained by foreign capital. The total tum invested in these enterprises can not be given, but may be approximately guessed at by the fact that over 22,000,000 have been actually spent by British companies in the petroleum industry alone. Frer.ch, Belgian, and German firms were more interested in metal mining, and some of the best-known exploitations of this kind are In their bands. The reason for this investment of foreign capita' lies in the fact that mining in general requires great capitals and strong financial support in emergencies, and this was not sufficiently available in Caucasta, nor in Russia, so that foreign help was welcome. Nevertheless, outside of the petroleum and manganese industries, large mining enterprises are comparatively few in number, although, as we have shown, there. is almost no limit to untouched, or barely scratched ore deposits in the country. Specially for copper mining there are eaeo'inous possibilities, and Georgia might well b'ome a second Montana in this regard. The Lesser Caucasus was the principal source of the copper supply for the Mediterranean ccointries in the antiquity and the middle ages, and to judge from the traces left by the old exploitations in scores of places, their proditction may at times have equalled the present-day one. The cause of the slow progress of the mining industry in modern times was in the first instance the lack ui. native capital for large enterprises. The only mining operations which could be executed practically without capital, namely, the digging for manganese ore, were in fact all coramenced by tile Georgian landowners, which proves that they are not lacking lit enterprise. But for large undertakings on a modern scale foreign capital had to be called in. Outcrops were examined by the experts of the capitalists, more or less at hazard. as they had been offered, but mostly did not satisfy them, either because thcy were not sufficiently opened up, or too far from the meantis of communication, or the pretensions of the owners were found too hig':, etc. Only those companies or syndicates suceed which went beyond these apparent obstacles and inade their own fuller examinations. Thus both the Dzansul and the Kvartzkhana mines, hose enormous rilchne.ss is to-day clearly proved, had been offered in London for years and "turned down" by several experts before the prescat owners startod their own prospecting works and made successes of them. Similar opportunities abound in the country and will no doubt, be taken advantage of after the return of normal conditions. It was remarked that just before the war, and already in 1913. a much greater ikumber of prospecting and exploitation licenses had been claimed from the Caucasian ining administration, which Indicated an awakening of the mining activities in tie c.untry. The possibilities offered by the exploitation of tile mineral springs and tile hydraulic energy of the country have been mentioned elsewhere, and altogether Caucasia, and specially Georgia, present to-day to foreign enterprie an almost virgin and most Inviting fle!d of activity.
PART Ill. MiNK.I. ,1'iRlNfG

The origin of by far the grealtesl 1art if tll' sprilg- i :nilig ;roi I ilt crth is r.ainwater. or inelt lag :noV. which s.'r4'lates tlit, soil a|ld rocks I iloitigh crack.4 or ere.s. and danlcells ililt;l it is arre-ted by a ii i ilriols stralltiiii. 'he
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA overlying porous beds will then act as a reservoir to be filled until the water finds another natural vent and Issues forth as a spring. The atmosphere slightly impregnates rainwater with ammonia, nitric, and especially carbonic acids, and thus charged the water has a considerable solvent action upon the rocks and soils which it encounters, and when finally coming again to the surface it will hold in solution a certain quantity of the mineral constituents of the formations through which it has passed. Thus, lime or magnesium salts will have been taken up from limEstone and other sedimentary formations, while the primary rocks, like granite and gneiss, will have given up sodium and potassium carbonates, or the water circulating nefr marine beds of salt will form a saline spring. According to the nature of the minerals encountered complex chemical reactions take place, so that many ;prings may finally contain twenty and more different compounds, whose quantity in a given volume of water may also considerably vary, according to the distance and time of the underground circulation of tht waters. Every Latural drinking water. therefore, contains some mineral constituents. but what Is specifically called a " mineral water" is a natural water proposed for consumption or use on account of Its special therapeutic or hygienic propertles. As to the hot or thermal springs, of which Caucasia has a great number, their temperature may in some Instances be due to their flow through or near rocks heated by the enormous strains set up by the movements and fracturing of the earth's rata. That such movements are still at work is proved by the frequent earthquakes, which sometimes shake the whole continent between the Black Cssplan Seas. But there Is no doubt that many of the Caucasian hot springs draw their water from the hot magma or molten lava existing In the deeper parts of the earth's crust. It is well known that such magmas contain gases and water which would rise as steam throuilb the Issures of the earth. condense. and take up in solution whatever elemL.ts they may meet In their further upward cour.e. This origin must probably be attributed to most of the hot mineral waters springing from the eastern part of the Caucasian main chain, where hot magmas are actually flowing yet in'their vicinity, forming the mud volcanoes and hot mud lakes previously described. Besides containing a great variety of mineral compounds the Caucasian springs are also very often impregnated with gages, especially carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. Emanations of the former are very frequent in all parts of the country, an% often bubble up In streams, impregnating the water, which thus becomes -apable of dissolving a certain quantity of chalk. WVhen the gas evaporates, 'he chalk is deposited again, often in crystalline form, and this is in fact the origin of the onyx marble found in the ErIvan district, and of other sta lagmi .es. Wadioactivity has also been observed in several soui.ces, but so far only a few of them in Georgia have been examined in this regard. According to their chief constituents the mineral waters are usually clan3sifled as follows : 1. Alkaline, in which sodium carbonate or bicarbonate predominate, also bicarbonate of lime. 2. Alkaline-saline, containing the precedent compounds, together with chloride of sodium and magnesium. 3. Saline, where the chlorides of sodium, magnesium, and calcium form the principal constituents. 4. Acid, containing sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, mostly found in volcanic neighborhoods. According to their secordary contents the sources may further be subdividet) into-Carbonated, containing carbonic acid. Sulphuroui, containing sulphuretted hydrogen. Ferruginous oe, ehalybeate, containing bicarbonate of iron, etc. Although the number of known mineral springs in Caucasla exceeds 400, as the appended table will show, only a small proportion of them is used for curative purposes, and most of the others have not been analyzed or tested as to their value.
107
Thb. following details concern the principal sources of which any use is made at present: In the northern Caucasus mineral sources are most frequent in the Terek district, where there are nearly one hundred of them known within an area of less than 40 miles in diameter, principally In or round the four centres of Piatigorsk, Shelesnovodsk, l&,.sntuki, and Kislovodsk. These places are situated in a very picturesque valley, through which a branch line of the North Caucasian Railway has been built, so that they are easily accessible. They are surrounded by mountain spurs descending from the high peak of the Elbrus, and the waters springing from them must, according to the great variety of their composition, concentration, and temperature, have passed through many different strata. The principal elements contained in them are iron and carbonic acid, with alkaline and sulphur compounds, and some Iodine and bromine. Their medicinal properties have been known from ancient times, and the Russian Government had them examined already in 1773, and tha first bathing season was opened in Kislovodsk in 1798. Numerous futhcr investigat.ons were then made, mostly by German doctors and scientists, who unanimously confirmed the high therapeutical value of the various solirces. But the Government departments of the domains, and afterwards of the interior, in whose hands their administration lay, did practically nothing to exploit them, and only in 1822 about 55,000 were advanced for building bathing establishments. In 1846 a special board for watering places was appointed, and more expert reports had to be obtained, one being made in 1874-75 by the French specialist Jules Frangois, who brought the baths into great prominence. In the latter year the branch Une ending at Kislovodsk, and connecting the four places with the Rostov Railway, was completed, thus making it possible for visitors to reach the baths easily. In 1882 another French engineer, Movn Dru, was engaged to work out a project for a larger exploitation, and in the execution of it 40,000 were spent between 1887 and 180, an(: f,,rthcr 65,000 between 1891 and 1895. Since 1905 the management has been in the hands of a special water board, under the aus ices of the ministry of -)mmerce and industry, but it has not succeeded in establishing and advertising these springs in a manner to compete with the German and French sorts. Platlgorsk is situated in the lower part of the valley. Its original name was Beshtau, which means "Five Mountains," from the five peaks surrounding It, the principal one being 4,593 feet high. The environs of the town are very pretty, and the climate is dry. It contains a number of sulphurous hot springs, of temperatures v.rylng between 280 and 480 C., partly used for drinking, partly for bthing. The principal ones of them have the following deliveries per 24 hours: Gallons Gallons Gallons Gallons at at at at 46' C -------------------------------------------------48' C -------------------------------------------------40.70 C -----------------------------------------------35.5* C -----------------------------------------------175,000 7,000 140,000 30,000
Essentuki lies 10 miles west of Platigorsk, and possesses only cold springs, mostly'of alkaline, also alkaline-saline nature, some being slightly sulphuretted. Sodium Iodide and bromide have also been detected In some of the springs, whose totl number Is about 30. Some of them are u.ed for bathing, for which purpose there exists good accommodation, others for drinking, and much of the alkaline-saline water is bottled and shipped as table water, ns it is very useful against dyspepsia, gout, and rheumatism. The mineral contents of one o_ the sources are also made up In tablets and sold as Essentukl Salts. Shelesnovodsk is situated at 2,100 feet above the sea, and Its springs are, as the name impiles, mostly of ferruginous nature, also alkaline. Their temperature varies between 180 and 500 C., and they are used for drinking as well as for bathing. There are eight establishments for the accommodation of visitors, of which there were about 0,000 in 1911. Kislovodsk Is the terminus of the branch railway, and lies 2,500 feet above sea level, entirely surrounded by mountains, and with a bracing climate. It is specially celebrated through its source ' Narzan," which was first capted In 1894, and produces about 350,000 gallons In 24 hours. This water ts not only used externally, but also as a medicinal and table water. On account of its cool temperature It contains much carbonic acid, and is therefore highly esteemed as a sparkling digestive of pleasant taste, which does not lose these
108
desirable qualities even after being bottled for a long time. Besides carbonic acid, this water also contains sulphates of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, carbonates of sodium and calcium, also chlorides, with traces of iodide and bromide of sodium, etc. It is specially useful for diseases of the nervous system and the heart. Other sources of this resort are used for baths. In Georgia the best-known and most frequented mineral springs are those o" the upper Kura Valley round Borjom. This town is situated 90 miles southwest of Tflls, in about the same latitude as Rome, and at 2,600 feet above the sea. It is connected with the Transcaucasian Railway by a branch line running through the highly picturesque Kura Valley between the Imerethian and Trialethian Mountain ridges, which are covered with big forests of pines, beeches, and numerous other trees. The climate of the valley is warm and very mild in winter. BorJom, with its surroundings covering nearly 300 square iles, was formerly a State property of the Kingdom of Georgia, and was illegally confiscated by the Russian Government and given to the Grand Duke Nicholas Michaelovich in entail. To-day it is again a State property of Georgia. BorJom Is celebrated not only as a watering place which attracts every season tens of thousands of visitors, but also through the export of larje quantities of the water from one of its sources which rivals with Vichy, aad is sent to Russia, France, the Mediterranean, and even as far as the United States. In 1913, 9,000,000 bottles were exported, the bottles themselves being made on the spot in a glass factory, which uses a very suitable sand and basalt also found In the vicinity. The sources of the district are characterized by the fact that they are mostly radioactive. They may be divided into the five following groups: 1. At BorJom itself the springs flow from the bottom of a small side valley, which seems to ba. only a cleft in the limestone rocks towering vertically on both sides of it. The two most Important ones have a delivery of about 19,000 and 8,000 gallons per 24 hours respectively, much of which is bottled, the surplus being used in the bathing establishments. The water Is very rich In carbonic acid, therefore its popularity its a table water. It has also been examined as to its radioactivity, which was found to be 0.800 Mache. and it was then also discovered that the radium and thorium salts contained in It continued to give off emanation, so that water bottled for nearly a year still showed the same radioactivity, while It usually disappears it a few weeks or days. This unusual behaviour merits further investigation. The medicinal effects of these waters are very remarkable against inflammations of the mucous membrane and catarrhs, against which inhalations are used; also against rheumatism, gravel. etc. 2. The second group of sources springs up at Tsagvery, about 8 miles above Borjoin, near the mountain railway !ending to Bakuriaui. TierO are nine cold springs, but only two of them have so far been capped. They are very ferruginous, and much charged with carbonic acid, avd generally of the nature of those of Schwalbach and Pyrmont in Germany, but contain even more bicarbonate of iron. Their radioativity is 0.60 Mache, and this fact may partly account for their efficacy against aniamia and neurasthenia. They are used for baths and for drinking, and before the war they were also bottled and shipped abroad with such good success that the bottling establish ient had to be enlarged. 3. Near the village Libani, about 6 miles from Borjom, at approximate altitude 4.000 feet. another group of 12 cold mineral springs comes up, characterized by the large quantity of chalk dissolved in them, which Is deposited as tufa In the same manner as at Carlsbad. The waters also contain sodium chloride and Iron bicarbonate, and have a radioactivity of 1.2" ,Machl-. The daily outflow is about 22.000 gallons, but until to-day no arrangements have been made for utilizing them. 4. A group of warm sulphurous springs giving a considerable delivery of over 100,000 gallons per day exists at Tsikhis-Djvary, a village situated about 5,000 feet above the sea and near the Bakurlani railway. Its radioactivity Is high. 1.22 Mache, and this, combined with the sulphur, makes the water highly curative in cases of rheumatism and skin affections. The populations of the neighborhood use it against these kind of troubles, and a small bathing establishment exists, which has been enlarged in 1913. 5. At Kvajarl, near the village Thimotis-Ubani, more mineral springs are known. bnt of a different nature, as they contain sulphur salts of magnesia,
i^AIoNA1 REPUBLIC OF GEQIGIA
1Q9
calcium, and sodium, and therefore have a purgative effect. They-are very tasty to drink, and effective against constipation, and. could eailly rival with the world-known purgative waters. From BorJom a small mountain railway ascends to the village Bakurlani, through most enchanting scenery. Near the Station Tsemi L sltucted the sanatorium of Dr. W. (Ghambashidze, established in 1103, chiefly for children and young people. As these details show, the district of BorJom produces an abundance of mineral waters of great variety and curative properties, which only require modern installations and management in order to make this valley a center of attraction for the sick and also the tourists of Russia and the east Mediterranean countries. Besides the amenities of nature this neighborhood also contains a great numlr of highly interesting antiquities, and the remains of about 100 old monasteries and of 14 fortresses, and crchieological discoveries from the bronze and even the stone age are frequent, a proof that the healing springs wvtre known and used from the oldest times. Of quite modern date are a botanical garden and an Alpine garden on the Tskra-Tskaro Mountain, at an altitude of 8,000 feet, which is much visited by tourists. There are also meteorological and seismographic stations, besides ,-xplotations of forestry and dairy and poultry farming un the most modern lines. But with all this, the resources of this fortunate and delightful spot are scarcely touched, and present enormous opportunities for further enterprise. A different kind of mineral springs appears at Abastuman, about 30 miles west of Boriom, in Georgin, on the Imerethian Mountains, at an altitude of 4,170 feet. They are more celebrated for their physical properties than for their mineral contents, as they spring at a high temperature, the principal ones at 48.2", 43". rand 40 C., respectively, and are also radioactive. The daily capacity of the hottest spring is about 220,00 galloms. Two large basins have been installed for general lathing, besides a number of cabli in which baths at temperatures between 31' and 47' C. can be taken, if neceszmry, with the addition of sea salt or pine extract, which hitter Is manufactured on the spot from the products of the surrounding pine forests. On account of their thermal properties these waters are specially used for hydrotherapeutical and hydroelectrlcal treatments, for which up-to-date installations exist, and which are highly effective against nervous diseases, rheumatism, and general debility. The climate and surroundings of Abastuman are beautiful; cures can also be continued during winter, when the place Is much visited by consumptive patients. T'Ais, the capital of Georgia, also contains warm sulphurous springs, which were known from the beginning of the Christian era; the name of the town, in Georgian "Thbillssl." means, In faict, " warm." There are eight different sources, containing principally sodium chloride, carbonate, sulphides, and iodides; calelum sulphate and carbonate, and magnesium sulphate and chloride, also traces of bromides. Their temperatures vary between 29 and 470 C., and their radioactivity averages 1.410 Mache, maxiumu 2.770. The quantity of water is considerable, and all the municipal baths are supplied from it, partly for medicinal purposes, against rheumnatism, skin diseases, etc. Some of the springs have the same composition as those of Cauterets and Bareges In Francea, Baden near Vienna, and there are great possibilities of making Tiflis Into a similarly attractive balneatory center. A further interesting Georgian health resort Is Tsklhaltubo, situated about 8 miles northwest of Kutai., at an altitude of 810 feet above the, sea. It possesses nine warm springs of alkaline and sulphurous nature, issulng at tem peratures between 28 and 35' C. Their delivery is very considerable, over 950,000 gallons per day, which are estimated to come from a depth of abogt 2,500 feet. The most remarkable quality of these waters is their high radioactivity, which varies between 3.28 and 6.70' Macbe on the daily averages; but it differs according to the hours of the day, being highest between noon and 2 p. m., when one source showed a maximum of 8.060. The water of the Tskhaltubo River is also radioactive, the examination proving from 1.350 to 1.70', and even the air in the building Erected over one group of sources shows up to 0.120. This radioactivity closely follows that of the different springs of TeplitzReboenau in Bohemia, which vary between 3.13 and 0.56 , and exceptionally
-110
NAiONAL REPUIC! OF GEORGIA
Moalount up t6 8.70 Mache: while It exceeds the activity of Wiidbad in Wfirtem. berg, with Whleh the Tekhaltubo waters are Identical, but whose radioactivity extends only between 1.6 and 3.3 Mache. These springs, therefore, have a great future before them, and may replace the above-mentioned baths which used to attract great numbers of gouty and rheftmatic patients from all parts. At present Tskhaltubo is already favorably known In Georgia, and is visited by some 45,000 to 50,000 guests during 'the summer season. Besides the described better-known bathing establishments there is a number hf smaller places which are only visited by the inhabitants of their neighborhood, and have usually not sufficient accommodation to attract visitors from a distance. ,Georgia, and especially the Province of Kutals, possess many such baths, some of whieh may be mentioned here. Zekarl, near Kutais, Georgia; a warm sulphurous spring of 350 C., used against rheumatism. Choklani, also a thermal spring of 310 C. Was known in antiquity, as a bath hewn In the rock has been discovered, dating from the time of the Argonauts. Kursebl, 8 miles from Kutais, Georgia, on the railway to Tkvibuli, posvses a cold alkaline sulpurous source, used locally against rheumatism and skin diseases. Khressill, in the neighborhood of Kursebl, and with a similar spring, used In the same manner. Utsera, 24 miles from Kutais, on the left bank of the River Rion, and 8,420 feet above sea leval; contains 11 alkaline sources, also ferruginous, within a small diameter. There is also a bathing establishment and some sceommodation for visitors. Sharopan has four sources near the River Kvirlla. In the Black Sea Province of Georgia mineral spriligs are not lrss abundant. Five are known around Ozurgetli, one at Zugdldl, another of sulphurous nature at Kvrrtchell, and many more near Sukhum, one of them also supplying sulphurous and strongly radioactive water. In the Kuban Province and the Taman Peninsula many mineral sources spring up which were known from old times. Some of them are of sulphurous nature, and contain also salts of bromine and iodine. They are used for rheumatic and neuralgic diseases, especially one floiN-lug near Ekaterinodar. Similar conditions prevail also In the Province of Elizabetpol, and In Daghestan. The latter district contains especially also a number of very hot springs, rising at nearly boiling point, but they are not used, and, in fact, scarcely known. In the appended list 415 places are mentioned, which contain between 800 and 900 separate springs of different nature, but in the absence of detailed analyses it Is not possible to give more than an approximate classification of them. About half of the total number are of sulphurous nature, containing sulphuretted hydrogen, which gas is also observed In about 45 alkaline springs, and a few containing In addition carbonic acid and carbonate of iron. The carbonated waters are. as explained, also very frequent, and carbonic aeld Is mentioned as the most noticeable gas permeating some 85 springs, while it also occurs In about 70 more ferruginous and 25 alkaline sources. It is often present in unusually large quantities, and none of the sparkling waters which are being bottled require to be strengthened by the addition of artificial carbonie acid, as it Is usually the case elsewhere. Ferruginous or chalybeate waters containing bicarbonate of Iron spring from about 40 sources, and the Iron compound forms also a valuable addition In a great number of the other spring.s. As to the alkaline and alkaline-sallne sources, they number about 150, while saline and bitter waters are produced by about 20 sources. Concerning their temperature It may be added that about one-fourth of all these springs pi;oduce thermal waters, that Is to say, they Issue from the ground at a temperature above 18" 0. About 80 of them have a temperature between 15 and 300 C., and 125 are even hotter, between 30 and 900 C.
11
According to the great variety of composition of the Caucasian springs their medical uses also extend in many directions, an,] are of the highest value for combating numerous Ills. The waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen are mostly used externally as baths against chronic rheumatism, gout, and skin diseases and for healing wounds. The ferruginous or chelybeate waters find their principal application internally in all forms of debility associated with ansemla, as they provide the blood with iron In its most agreeable and assimilable form. Alkaline and alkaline-saline springs are the most extensively used as medicinal table waters, being a world-wide remedy against digestive derangements, and also catarrial affections of the mucous membrane, etc. Saline waters act as aperients, and have a general stimulating effect on the digestion; many of them also act as purgatives. In view of the great number and usefulness of the Caucasian mineral springs It is surprising that they have not been developed to a greater degree. Their number Is three or four times as great as that of all the mineral sources existing in central and western Europe combined, and yet more than nine. tenths of them are allowed to run to waste, while In Germany, France, or Italy they would be of considerable value. The reason liei'partly in the comparative remoteness of the country, but principally in the apathy of the former Government, which entirely neglected this part of the natural wealth of the Caucasus. The altered European conditions make it opportune to draw attention to the possibilities of development of this industry. That this development Is even a necessity Is proved by the fact that at the outbreak of the war several hundred thousand Russians who formerly had been in the habit of taking the waters at some German or French spa, found themselves reduced to the resources of the Caucasus, which proved utterly unprepared. Mineral springs may be developed In two directions, either by bottling and shipping the waters suitable for table use, or by erecting bathing establishments and sanatoria and attracting visitois to them. At BorJom and Kislovodsk some springs are already being bottled, but their names are scarcely known outside of Russia, while those of "'i French and German waters, like Vichy, St. Galmler, Apollinarls, Selters, etc., are worldfamed. There can not be any doubt that out of the great number of Caucasian waters some will be found to be of similar nature, if they are carefully examined and analysed. That there is an enormous demand for such table and aperient waters all over the world is proved by the sales of the principal kinds; for Instance, the Apollinarls Co. In Germany sold 37,000,000 bottles In 1912, while Vichy exceeds this number; the latter establishment is under the control of the French Government. As to bathing establishments in Caucasla, very few of the existing ones are known outside of their Immediate neighborhood, or Installed In such a manner as to attract visitors from a distance, or even from foreign countries. This in spite of the fact that many useful waters spring up in most delightful places as far as natural surroundings and climate are concerned, and if wellequipped hotels, baths, and sanatoria, and the usual artificial attractions were provided, and the fact well advertised, visitors would not be wanting. Just before the outbreak af the war a movement had been started to utilize some other springs in Georgia In this direction, and it is to be hoped that the project will be executed as soon as normal circumstances prevail again. The central European resorts will undoubtedly lose a great part of their former regular visitors from the allied countries, who will have to go further afield. And there Is no country In Europe which can offer such a variety of healthgiving springs, combined with grand natural beauties and an interesting population as the Caucasus. The climate. specially in western Georgia, Is also very mild In winter, and suitable for pulmonary patients; the old Romans, who had the whole Mediterranean at their disposal, placed their wf 'tar colonies on the shores of the Black Sea, near Gagri and Sukhum, etc. All the natural conditions, therefore, exist for making the country a center of attraction for the tourist as well as for the seeker after health, and it remains for the human effort to realize this.desirable and useful end.
-112
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF oORGIA

H
LISr OF WH MINERAL 8PRINOS, MELDICINAL MUDS, SPAS, SKA-DATIIS STATIONS OF OORGIA AND CAUCASIA
AND CLIMATIO
1. Abadsekby, in Kuban Government, Maikop district, near the station of the same name; not investigated. 2. Abano, Province of Kutals, Georgia, 30 miles from Kutals on the right bank of the River Rion; sulphurou waters. 8. Abanoekhet-, Province of Batum, Artvln district, Georgia, 5,053 feet above sea level; warm, sulphurous sources, temperature 310 V., and near them at the village. Mikhelethi, another warm source containing carbonic acid and Iron, temperature 280 C. 4. Abanos-Chala, 2 miles from Zekarl, Province of Kutais, Georgia; warm sulphurous source, temperature 3 2 - 3 5 * c. 5. Abarani, near Tkvartchell, Sukhutm district. Georgia: warm sulphurous source, temperature 86* 0. 0. Abastuman, Province of '1ifls, Akhaltzik district, Georgia, 60 miles front station Khashuri on the Transcaucasian Railway; hot springs and climatic
station.
7. Agara, Province of Batum, Georgia; warm sulphurous spring, temperature 25* C. 8. Agbuda, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Kasakhi: cold ferrugiuous spring. 9. Aguran. Black Sea Province, district of Sotehi. Georgia. Pnd 8 miles from that town; warm sulphurous spring, temperature 280 C. 10. Agidun, Province of Tiflis, district of Akholtvik. Georgia; warm sulphurous spring, temperature 200 0. 11. Azoff, Kuban Province, Taman district; saline source rich in carbonic acid. 12. Aishkho, Black Sea Province, Sotchi district. Georgia, 4.150 feet above sea level; cold ferruginous and gaseous source; temperature 110 C. 13. Algridjkar, Province of Erivan, 26 miles from Bayaatd; ferruglnoums source with carbonic acid. 14. Iriehak, Province of Elizabetpol. district of Sangesur. 1 mile from village of Dastglr; carbonated source. 15. Alaghesi, Province of Erivan. on Alaghes Mountain. 3.600 feet above sea level; hot sulphurous spring. 16. Al igir, Province of Terek. 10 miles from town of same name on Ardon River; sulphurous and carbonated spring, temperature 16.20 C. 17. Aladjin, Province of Erivan, district of NakhidJevan*; carbonated source. 18. Alashin, Province of Baku, 20 miles from Lenkoran; cold sulphurous A spring. 19. Alpbanls-Abano, Province of Kutals, District of Letchkum), Georgia, 33 miles from Kutais on the right bank of the Ilion River; cold sulphurous source. 20. Amaglebi, Province of Kutais. district of Ozurgetl. near Station Sajchebakho, Georgia; 6 sources of sulphurous waters, temperature 240 0. 21. Anapa, Province of Kuban. district of Teemriuk; sea and medicinal mud baths, special hospital for electrical and therapeutical treatment; source containing chloride of sodium and lodides. 22. Apnia, Province of Tiflls, district of Akhalkalaki. Georgia; on the right bank of the Kura River, opposite the ancient monastery of Vardsla, a sulphur23. Apsheron, near Baku; slphurous and calcareous springs, temperature C. 24. Apsho, Province of Tiflis, district of Thioneti. Georgia: cold spring strongly carbonized. 25. Arvethl, Province of Batum, district of Artvin, Georgia; 4 miles from the village Ardanutch, a sulphur spring. 20. Arsni, Province of Erivan, 8 miles northeast from the town; cold saline sing. 27. Arkevan, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran, 6 mlles from Arkevan. hot sulphurous spring. 28. Arsoen, Province of Baku, district of Sbemakha a, 1 40 miles southeast from the latter town: a warm spring containing Galubersalt, temperature, 100 C. 29. Arthkhmosy, Province of Tifis, district of Dushet, Georgia, near station Kasbek, about 6,430 feet above sea level: c-old carbonated spring, temperature 6" 0. 24
ovs source.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF QEOR0IA
113
30. Artvln, Province of Batum, Georgia; ferruginous spring. 31. Askana. Province of Kutals, district of Ozurgeti, Georgia; sulphurous :springs. 32. Aspindza, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, and 10 miles from tme latter town, on the left bank of the Kura River; hot sulphurous springs, temperature 32.2' C. 33. Astara, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran, 5 miles from the Caspian Sea shore near the Persian frontier; a hot sulphurous spring, temperature 46 C. 34. Atabety, Province of Tiflis. kierit of Tioneti. Georgia; cold carbonated spring. , 35. Atheni, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia, and about 4 miles southeast of Gori; a cold sulphurous spring. 30. Athly-Boyun, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir-Khan-Shur, 8 miles southwest of Ptctravsk; a hot sulphurous source, temperature 350 C. 37. Akhaltzik, Province of Tiflis, Georgia, on the left bank of Potzkhov River; a carbonated source, temperature 20" C.; and 2 miles south of Akh'altzik, in the village. Uraveli, Georgia ; a warm sulphurous spring, temperature 210 C. 38. Akblatiu, Province of ElIlzabetpol, district of Sangesur; a carbonated spring. 39. Akhtala, Province of Tiflis, district of Signakh, Georgia; medicinal muds of temperature of 180 C.; and also on the right bank of the Alazan River near the village Gurdanl, a carbonated source. 40. Akhtim, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur; 5 hot sulphurous sources. 41. Akhgel, Province of Daghestan, near Petrovsk; medicinal mud from the dried-up lake of the same name. 42. Atsgara, Province of Sukhum, Georgia, on the right bank of the river of the same name; a cold sulphurous spring. 43. Atskhury, Province of Tiflis, dI3trIct of Akhaltzik, Georgia on the left bank of the Kura River; a hot sulphur spring. 44. Achipse. Black Sea Province, district of Sotchi, Georgia, 2,370 feet above sea level; cold carbonated source, temperature 11.250 C. 45. Achuluk, Ter. Province. 17 miles from Viadicauvase: sulphurous spring. 46. Ayar, Province of Erivan; sulphur springs. 47. Aphon, Black Sea Province, near Novorossisk; sea bath. 48. Bughiani, Province of Baku, 4 miles from Salyani; saline springs. 49. Baba-Zanan, Province of Baku, also near Salyani; a warm saline mud source, temperature 330 C. 50. Bagdadi, Province of and near Town of Kutais, Georgia, In Sekar valley; sulphurous source, temperature 190 C. 51. Badamlu, Province of Erivan, district of Naklichevan; carbonated spring. 52. Baksan, Province of Ter.; cold ferruginous and carbonated source. 53. Batalin, Province of Ter., 4 miles from Platigorsk ;- source of bitter water, temperature 110 C. 54. Batalpashin Kuban Province; mineral mud and bitter salt lake water. 55. Batmak, Province of Daghestan, on Caspian Sea; medicinal mud from the dried-up lake Batmak. 56. Batum, Georgia, in neighborhood of sea baths and hy;lropathtc Institutions, climatic station, May to October. 57. Bashin, Province of Terek; cold sulphurous spring. 58. Baindnr, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol; cold carbonated spring. 50. Besobdal, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol; cold carbonated spring. 60. Beslobi, Province of Erivan, district of Nakhichevan; ferruginous source. 81. Bergusheti, Province of Eiz1abetpol, district of Zangesur; carbonated and sulphurous spring. 62. Berssoff. Province of Terek, 5 miles from Kislovodsk; cold carbonated source. 63. Besla. Province of Sukhum, Georgia, 3 miles east of Sukhum; sulphurous source, 16.2' C. 64. Beshkllis, Province of Kars, district of Kegisman, 30 miles4 from Kars; a cold carbonated ferruginous source, and also a warm sulphurous spring of 26 C.
66. Bishenessl, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; cold sulphurous spring. 67. Bolsbol-Tambukan Lake, Province of Terek, district of Platigorsk; medicinal mud. 68. BorJom, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia; 2,636 feet above sea, cold and warm carbonated sources, the "Hkaterin" source, 29.90 C. and the "Eugenie" source, 23.6 C. containing also iodide and bromide of sodium. In the vicinity, warm sulphurous sources at Tskhisdjvari and for. ruginous ones at Tsagveri. 09. Barlsakho, Province of Tiflis. district of Thionethl, Georgia; carbonated source containing much chalk. 70. Bragun, Province of Terek, district of Grozny; two groups of sources: (a) two hot'sulphurous sources, temperature 40 to 60 and 900 C. used for bath. ing with some primitive arrangements; (b) on the right bank of the zlver Sunja also hot sulphurous sources. 71. Bristati, Province of Tiflis, district of Gor, Georgia, on the upper rn+aches of the River Didiliaklivi, 5,900 feet above sea; cold carbonated source springing from andesite beds, 80 C. 72. Bugas, Kuban Province, Tamriuk district; medicinal muds on the Bugas salt lake. 73. Bugeull, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha. Georgia, on the left bank of the Rion River; a sulphurous spring. 74. Budugh, Province of Baku, in the Tengin valley, difficult of access; two sulphurous sources, temperature 48.1 and 46.250 C. 75. Bum, Province of Baku, district of Nukhn, two groups of sources: (a) 3 miles from the village there are two warm sulphurous sources, temperature 39.2 and 23.750 C.; (b) 12 miles from the latter, on the Kara-tchai River, another cold sulphurous source. 76. Burdus, Province of Kars, district of Olti, one-half mile from the frontier; a hot source of unknown composition. 77. Bulk Hill source, Province of Terek, 10 miles from Shelesnovodsk; alkaline sulphurous source. 78. Beloretchensk, Province of Kuban, district of Maikop; summer resort. 79. Barbare, near Sukhum, Georgia, on the Eris-tskali River; a cold carbonated source, temperature 160 C.. and 3 miles from it the "Claudi" source, slightly carbonated, temperature 120 C. 80. Vartsikhe, near Kutals, Georgia, on the left bank of the Kvlria River; a hot source of unknown composition. 81. Vedza-Amalo, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethl, Georgia, 2 miles from the village Amalo on the right bank of the River Alazan; a cold carbonated source. 82. Vedza-Makartho, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushethi, Georgia, 5 miles from the Station Pasanauri on the Georgian Military Road and on the left bank of the River Aragul; a cold alkaline and carbonated source, temperature 110 C. 83. Vedl, near Erivan; a warm source used by the natives, composition unknown. 84. Gagri, Prqvlnce of Black Sea, district of Sotchi, Georgia; sea baths and climatic station open all the year round, mild climate, sun baths, light and electric baths. Alkaline source 6 miles from Gagri. 85. HadAi Samlak Muradin, Province of Elizabetpol. district of Snugesur, 16 miles from Shusha. difficult of access, 7,443 feet above the sea; the "Tur" source, cold, ferrgnous and carbonated. 86. Gamsatcheman, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol, 4,090 feet above the sea; a cold source with ferrous and alkaline salts. 87. Garula, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, near the village Gard; a mineral source of unknown composition. 88. Gnebl, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, two groups of sources: (a) In the Teheshura and Khvartchuli valleys several carbonated sources of unknown analysis; (b) at the confluence of the Gnebi and Rion Rivers several sources containing alkaline and ferrous sulphides and sulphates. 89. Guelendjik, on the Black Sea shore, Georgia, 25 miles from Novorossisk; sea baths, public baths of sea water and medicinal muds, hotels and boarding houses. 90. Guel source, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan, near village Rheva, Georgia; warm mineral source of unknown composition.
source.
65. Blsso, Province of Tifls, district of Thlonethi, Georgia; cold carbonated
115
91. Guenal-Don, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, two sources: (a) 5 miles from village Tmeni-kau at altitude 7,140 feet, a cold slightly saline source; (b) 1 miles from same village at altitude 5,432 feet, a hot mineral source, temperature 310 C. 92. Guerguethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia, on the upper Terek River, 5,595 feet above the sea; a cold spring of carbonated ferruglnous water, temperature 90 0. 93. Guerussi, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Sangesur; a carbonated source tasting like Selters water, but not analysed. 94. Gueyuk, Province of Erivan; a carbonated source. 95. Guedikal, Province of Erivan, district of Novo-Bayazid, at altitude 6,350 feet; a cold ferruginous and alkaline source. 90. Guilar, Province of Daghestan, district of Karin, on the Samur River; a slightly saline warm spring of temperature 350 0., and near it a cold sulphurous one. 97. Glasnol. Black Sea Province, Sotchi district, Georgia; a cold alkaline source on the seashore. 98. Glasnol, Province of Terek, near Kislovodsk, altitude 2,700 feet; a cold sulphurous spring of 9* C. 09. Glola, Province of Kutals, district of Ratcha, Georgia; several ferruginous and carbonated springs at altitudes 4,572 and 3,886 feet, temperature 110 C.; and at the confluence of the Glola and Rion Rivers another source of similar nature, temperature 12 C. 100. Goktcha, Province of Erivan, district of Novo.Bayazid; two springs on the Sanga River, one ferrous and carbonated, and the other at the mouth of the rivei, sulphurous. 101. Galubit, Province of Kuban, Taman Peninsula; baths in lake of medicinal mud; sea baths might also be organized. 102. Goma, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia, near village Shurdo; a warm mineral source of 22.50 0. 103. Gomura, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; carbonated source springing under great pressure. 104. Gorassu, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; a carbonated source is',ing on the shore of a pond of ferruginous mineral water. 105. Gorassu-tchlran, same district, near the Elbrus, at altitude 9,700 feet below the glacier of the same name; a cold sulphurous source. 106. Gorl, near Tiflis, Georgia, at altitude 1,790 feet; a cold sulphurous source. 107. Gag-djur, Province of Erivan, district of Echimladzin, on the left bank of the Abaran River, at 6,000 feet above the sea; a cold alkaline source, 100 C. ,f Temryuk, on the 108. Garelol-Sopki source, Province of Kuban, dist, Taman Peninsula; cold sulphurous. 109. Goriatche Vodski, Province of Terek. 650 feet above sea; two groups of hot sulphurous sources; the eastern group consisting of 18 sources produce. ing 95,000 gallons per day, at temperature 73-750 C.; the western of 3 sources at 80-88 C. Two bathing establishments, used by the neighboring populations. 110. Gubden, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir-Khan Shura; cold sulphurous spring with odor of sulphuretted hydrogen, 190 C. 111. Gudau, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; cold car bonated spring. 112. Gudarakh, same district; a cold carbonated alkaline spring. 113. Gudauthi, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia; sea baths and climate station, best bathing of the whole shore. -114. GudJarethi, Province of Tiflis near BorJom, Georgia; a warm sulphurous source. 115. Gudamakarl, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia; three alkaline carbonated sources at 2 miles distance, temperature 120 C. Primitive accommodations for cures. 110. Gulachala, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkum, Georgia; a cold carbonated and ferrugiuous source. 117. Giumur, Province of Erivan, district of Nakh!chevan; cold carbonated spring. 118. Davalo, Province and district of Erivan; a warm carbonated source, temperature 24" C., forming a pond used as a bath against skin diseases.
14ATIONAL -REPUBLIC OF dEORGIA

119. Darachi-tchas, Province of ErIvan, district of Novo.Bayazld; 3 cold sources on the right bank of the Zatiga River, carbonated, one rich In lime, ,called the "milk source," another tasting like Solter's water, the third ferruginous. 120. Dargavs, Province of Terek, district of Viadicaucase, right bank of Guisal River; a hot sulphuroua spring. 121. Dash-kent, Province of Elizabeipol, district of Sangesur; several small carbonated sources. 122. Dvalishvilebl, near Kutais, Georgia, on the River Isrethi; 3 groups of hot sulphurous springs, temperature 35 and 220 C., respectively. Visited by Georgians living in malarial districts. 123. Dvirl, Province of Tiffis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia; two hot slightlyalkaline springs, temperature 35* C. 124. Derbent Stanitza, Province of Kuban; bitter and saline sources. 125. Derbent Sources, on shore of the Caspian Sea, 30 miles from Derbent, in hot district; hot sulphurous sources of which three have been capted, temperature 490, 480, and 37 C. respectively, used In a bathing establishment. Five miles north of them there are splendid sea baths on shallow sandy shores and two lakes of mineral mud, one of 380 C. containing 50 per cent of* water, some naphtha, sulphurous and traces of phosphoric acid; the other of 270 C. has the same physical properties, but its chemical composition is different. There are no facilities for using the muds. 126. Derbent, Daghestau; saa baths, water very saline on this shore. 127. Djabani, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha: ('ld .1uiphurons spring. 128. DJavi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia; alkaline source. 129. Djadjira, Province of Ellzabetpol. near Slavyanska: cold carbonated
source.
130. DJelans, Province of and district of K'ars, altitude 6.200 feet; 3. sources, one sulphurous and ferruginous for bathing, two sulphut-ous for drinking; frequently visited by the natives. 131. DJamurl, Prqvince of Tiflis, district of Dushethi, Georgia, near the viilarge Bathini; 2 alhnline carbonated sources, temperature 0.25* C. 132. Djarishtlo, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik: cold, carbonated source. 133. DJakvell, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan; cold, abundant sulphurous and alkaline source, temperature 12" C. 134. DJelan-kol, Province of Kuban. district of liatalpash: alkaline carbonated source. 135. DJelae, Province and district of Kars, 5,600 feet above the sea; several sulphurous and alkaline sources, temperature 8.5 to 13 and 250 C. 136. DJodJora, Province of Kutais. district of Ratcha, Georgia, near Oni;. 0 cold carbonated and ferruginous sources, flowing from sandstone beds, tenperature 11-130 C. The water is clear, agreeable to drink. with a slightly acid and ferrous taste. 137. Djuma, Province of Kutals, district of Zugdtdl, Georgia, near monastery of Tsalshl, a warm sulphurous source giving off sulphurated hydrogen abundantly, temperature 270 C. .138. Djumukhl, Province'of Terek, district of Platigorst; three bitter salinesources, temperature 17.50 C. 139. Djurauli, Province of Erivan, diqtriet of Surmalin, at altitude of 5.710' feet; a cold alkaline carbonated source, temperature 150 C. 140. Dzlcheksh, Province of Kuban, district of 'Mnilop, at altitude of 8,195. feet; a cold ferruginous source. 141. Dzishra-Azego, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum. Georgia: a sulphurous spring. 142. Doll, Province of Kutals, district of Letchkum, Georgia; cold sulphurous spring. 143. Dugun, Province and district of Erivan: a warm alkaline and saline source of 180 C. 144. Ebgenlev, In Daghestan Province and district of Temlr-khan Shuna;sulphurous source. 145. Edis, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia; a carbonated and ferruginou. source. 148. Elsk, Province of Kuban, port on Sea of Azoff; cold sulphurous! source giving 100,000 gallons per day. Sea baths, also medicinal muds near the salt lake of Khan.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROJA
117
147. Ekaterinefeld,. Province of Tiflis, district of Bortchaloj Georgia; a carbonated source depositing chalk on the River Mashaverl. 148. Fisou, Provinc of ,akatali .district of Kakhi, Georgia, at altitude of 6,800 feet; several sulphurous sources giving off slight smell of sulphurated hydrogen, temperature from 24 to 420 0. 149. Eilisu-Nukha, Province of Elizabethpol, district of Nukha; alkaline, and saline source, of temperature 37.5* 0. 150. Essentuki, Province of Terek. district of Platigorsk, altitude 2,000 feet; a number of saline, alkaline, and sulphurous springs. For internal use are employed: Alkaline No. 17 and 18, 11.250 C. Alkaline, saline, and ferrugineus No. 6, at 20.380 0., containing sodium iodide and bromide, No. 4 at 10.G C., and No. 19 at 10.0 C. For-baths there reused No. 20, alkaline saline at 10.6 C., and No. 26, sulphurous alkaline at 1L.8 C. The Essentuki Salts are extracted from source No. 17. 151. Shelesnovodsk, 10 miles from Essentuki (150), altitude 2,300 feet; numerous hot and cold ferro-alkaline sources used for drinking, temperature 18.75 to 44.4 0., and for bathing from 17 to 500 C. Well-known watering place. 152. Zaparosh, Province of Kuban, district of Taman, near the Vladicaucase railway; a number of sources springing up from a small area, but of different composition, some alkaline-saline, others carbonated and ferruginous, while another smells of sulphuretted hydrogen. 153. Zargeran, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha; a cold sulphurous source. 154. Zatsira, Province of Kutaits, Georgia, 8 miles from the town; a sulphurous source much used by the natives, although the accommodation is primitive; the place is very healthy and protected from the cart winds. 155. Zvare. Province of Kutats, district of Sharopan, Georgia. 2 miles from Station Mollthi; a warm sulphurous source, temperature 31.250 C.. 156. Zekari, Province and district of Kutals, Georgia; warm sulphurous sources of 35-6O C., much used against rheumatism, with three bthing places, and 6 miles from them another cold, slightly sulphurous source, temperature 160 C. 157. Zemo-Khvedurethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; cold sulphurous sptlig. 158. Zmeevski Source, Province of Terek, 2 miles from Shelesnovodsk; a ferro-sulphurous source, temperature 120 C. 159. Zor, Province of Erivan, district of Surmalln; a ferro-alkaline source, temperature 160 C. 160. Zromag, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase; a slightly saline source. 161. Ilsk, Province of Kuban, district of Taman; a sulphurous source. 162. Imirlu, Province of Erivan, district of Fechmiadzin, at altitude of 5,800 feet; a cold alkaline and carbonated source of 11.20 C., used by the natives who consider it as the surest cure against consumption. There is some accommodation for the summer season. 16.3. Ingushli, Prowince of Terek, district of Nalchik, near the Elbrus Mountain, at altitude 7,000 to 8,000 feet; a cold alkaline carbonated spring. 164. IndJir-Su, Province of Balm, district of Lenkoran, near the Persian frontier; a carbonated source. 105. Indish, Province of K~uban, district of Batalpash, at altitude of 3,800 feet; several warm saline.atkalikne and carbonated springs, one of 30 C. has been capped; its water is effervescent like Narzan. 166. Inja-tchal, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Kazakh; a carbonated spring. 167. Iris-tchala, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia; cold carbonated spring. 168. Istisu, Province of Terek, district of Grozny; two group of sulphurous sources, hot, one giving 20,000 gallons per day, used for baths, the other emitting sulphuretted hydrogen abundantly and having a temperature of 75 0. 169. Istisu-NakhidJevan, Province of Erivan, district of Shnrurs-Daralagez; several cold and hot sulphurous sources with temperatures up to 41' 0. 170. Ishkarti, Province of Daghestan, district of Temlr-khan Sbura; many small sulphurous sources, temperature 12' 0.; healthy climate. 171. Kasbek, Province of Tiflis, dLstrict of Dusbet, Georgia, at altitude 12,000 feet; a warm sulphurous source, 290 0. 172. Kasikoparl, Province of Erivan, district of Surmal,. at altitude 5,720' ;c- t I! cold alkaline and carbonated source of temperature 16' C.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF *GEORGIA 173. Kalntma, Province of Zakatali, Georgia, near village Allbeglu; a cold sulphurous and alkaline source. 174. KalatelW, Province of ErIvan, district of Suramll; cold ferro-alkaline source of 13* 0. 175. Kalmikaev, Province of Terek, district of Platlgorek; sulphurous alkaline source. 176. KalvadJar, Province of Erivan; hot sulphurous water, used by the natives. 177. Kantsbavetbi, Province of Tiflls, district of Dushet, Georgia; sulphurous source. 178. Karabulak, Province and district of Tiflis, Georgia; carbonated spring. 179. KaradJoran, Province and district of Surmall; carbonated spring. 180. Karmen, Province of Tflis, District of Thlonethl, Georgia; cold ferruginous source. 181. Kastala, Province of Terek, district of Khassav-Yurt; cold carbonated ferruginous source. 182. Katsal-Khev, Province of Tiflis, district of Thlonethi, Georgia; a cold carbonated and ferruginous source. 183. Kayakent, Province of Daghestan, district of Kaitago-Tabassaran, on the Caspian Sea; hot sulphurous source of 320 C., and near It sulphurous mud. Hot and dry climate, sea baths and accommodation for the sick. Georgia, on the left bank 184. Kvalithi, Province of and district of Kutais. of the Kvirila River; a cold sulphurous spring of 8 C. Sea, Georgia; cold carbonated 185. Kvanl, dltilct of Sukhum on the Black source. 186. Kvareli, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia; cold sulphurous source. 187. Kvishe' hi, Province of Tiflis, district of .Dushet, Georgia; a cold carbonated and ferreginous source with primitive accommodation for bathers. 188 Kert-mall, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; carbonated spring. 189. Kivlschvllebt, Provinsa of Kutpls, district of Sharopan, Georgia, cold sulphurous source, of 15 C. 190. Kisel.tchakb, Province and district of Kars; cold ferruginoui source. 191. Kiriklli, Province of Terek, district of Platigorsk; saline-alkaline source. 192. Kislovodsk, Province of Terek, district of Platigorsk, contains the celebrated "Narsan" source which gives about 570,000 gallons per day of carbonated mineral water at temperature 13.750 C., a large part of which is used for drinking and bottling purposes, and exported to Russia and other countries. There are also other sources used for baths. 193. Kitch-Malka, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; carbonated spring. 194. Klavdi Source, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia, on the Tskhlrl Mountain; carbonated source, temperature 100 C. 195. Mlitch Valley, Black Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia; a cold ferruginous source. 196. Kmosti, Province of Tiflis, district of Thlonethi, Georgia; a cold carbonated source. 197. Kobi, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet. Georgia, at altitude 6,500 feet, a cold ferro-alkaline source of temperature 9 C., used for baths. and 6 other ferrugnous and ferro-alkeline sources of temperature 0 to 8 C., one of which is capted in a stone basin. 198.. Kobulethl, near Batum, Georgia; sea baths and sanatorium for i;ervous and heart diseases. 199. Kodlani, Province of TJflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a cold sulphurous source, temperature 190 C. 200. Kodlassan, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a cold sulphurcus source, temperature 99 C. 201. Kodora, Blaek Sea Province, district of Sukhum, Georgia; a sulphurous source. Z2. Konstantine, Province of Terok, a sulphurous source, containing also some naphtha and sulpheretted hydrogen, temperature 27.5 C. 2M3. Konkbideti, Province of Daghestan, district of Andl, 3,900 feet above the sea, in a wild and malarlous couidry; a great number (said to he about 200) aiphurous sources, temperature 17.5* 0. 204. Koronls-Tskall, 3 miles from Batum, Georgia; a health station, famed for its beautiful climate.
119
205. Kotell, Provhe of Tiflis, district of Bortshalo, Georgia; a cold slightly saine source, temperature 7.50 C. 206. Kotur, Province of Tiflis, district of Bortahalo, Georgia; a carbonated source. 207. Kotur-Gumush, Province of Erivan, district of Novo-Baya~id; cold ferruginous source. 208. Kotr-Istisu, Province of -Elizabetpoi, district of Sangesur; a warm mineral spring, composition unknown. 209. Krasna Polians, on the River Mzimta, near Sotchi, Black Sea Province, Georgia; mountain resort, with some hotels and accommodation for special cures. Alkaline-saline and ferruginous carbonated springs, some of them tasting like Vichy water. 210. Kuapta, near Artvln, Georgia; a ferruginous carbonated spring of bitter taste. 211. Kudara, Province of Kutals, district of Radja, GOorgia; several warm sources of carbonated water. 212. Kulash, Province of Kutais, district of Samtredl, Georgia; a cold ferruginous source. 213. Kulkl-Bossi, Province of Terek, district of SundJen; a cold sulphurous spring. 214. Kulpl, Province of Erivan, district of Surmall; a carbonated source. 215. Kumogor, Province of Stavropod, district of Alexandrovsk;. 1,800 feet above the sea; 6 warm alkaline sulphurous sources. 216. Kurmukh, Province of Zakatali, Georgia; a cold carbont.ted spring. 217. Kunakhkent, Province of Baku, at altitude 2,300 feet; hot sulphurous springs; temperature 47-390 0., used for bathing. Dry and healthy climate. 218. KurdJani, Province of Tiflis, district of Signakh, near Akhtala, Georgia; alkaline source. 219. Kursebi, Province and district of Kutals, Georgia, on the Tkvibuli railway; a cold alkaline sulphurous source producing about 1,00W gallons per day. Baths and other accommodations for visitors have been installed. 220. Kushtchevska, Province of Kuban; a ferruginous sulphurous source, of a delivery of about 8,000 gallons per day. 221. Kushtchl, Province of Erivan, district of Sharko-Daralagel; four hot carbonated springs, temperature 400 0. 222. Kiuliutl, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur; an abundant carbonated source. 223. Lakhamull, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia, on the River Ingurl; a cold carbonated source. 224. Latchta, Province of Kutais, district of Radja, Georgia; carbonated spring. 225. Lashe, Province of Kutais, district of Ozurgheti, Georgia; a saline spring. 228. Lashe.Mkrala, same district; a warm sulphurous spring. 227. Lashketi, Province of Kutals, district of Letchkhum, Georgia; a cold ferruglnouG and carbonated spring, temperature 13.25" C. 228. Lashkhevi, ProvInce of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a cold carbonated source. 229. Legvanl, Province and dist'iet of Kutais, Georgia; two sources, one alkaline, the other sulphurous; thy have been capped and are used locally. 230. Lenkoran, on the southwest shore of the Caspian Sea; sea baths, and 8 miles from them eight hot and one cold sulphurous springs, some of wht(h are beifg used by the natives. 231. Ilhan, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia, at altitude 3,900 feet, 2 miles from the Sadger Lake; 12 cold springs, ferruginous and strongly carbonated 232. Likoki, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethl, Georgia; a cold carbonated source. 233. Lonjin, Province of Terek, district of Sunja; a cold ferruginous spring, 234. Lopota, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia; a cold mineral spring of unkown composition. 235. I,u'pek, Province of Kars, district of Kagisman; a ferru3inoils spring. 230. Lissogorsk, Province of Terek, district of Platigorsk; a bitter saline source which has been capped nnd is being used in the establishments of Piatigorsk.
120
NATIONAL RI[UBLIC OF GUORGIA
.237.Llsgorki Province of Elizabetpoil, district of Shashat altitude 5,100 feet; several cold ferruginous sources, one.'6parkling-4nd. resembling- Seltets ,water. This place is a health resort, and enjoy. an excellent climate in which the patients can live In tents. .'28. ifatchara, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; three cold ferruginous and carbonated sources, temperature 160 U. 239. Malka, Provinee of Terek, district or Nalchlk; a c0ld carbonated spring, . and near It another alkaline.-carbouated source. Higher temperature 80 up on the RiVer jalki, at altitude 7,8W0 feet and 6 miles from the Elbrus ,Mountain, a Warm marbonated ferruginouo spring, temperature 20.750 0. and called "Warm Nartrn." Near the latter yet anothsce nonferruginous source. 240. Makaev sources, Province of Terek, 2 miles from Grolmy; several hot springss slightly sulphuretted, temperature from 82" to 46* C. and primitive installations for bathing. 241. Makat-Yurt, Province of Terek, 12 miles northwest of Groxny; hot temperature -72 to 79 C., and, other warm springs near sulphurous springs, , . -i -them . 242. Marinska, Province of Kuban, district of Batalpash; an alkaline carbonated trce. 243. Makhindjurt, Province of Batum, Georgia; several alkaline, ferruginous, and uinphurbu sources. 244.'Matesfa, Black Sea Province, near Sotchl, Georgia; warm source of strongly sulphuretted watet, considerable outflow, temperature 22.20 C.; also aulphurois 'muds near the source. 1 245. Msimte, Black Sea Province, 25 miles from Sotchi, Georgia; In the valley of the River Mslmta, at altitude 2,950 feet there are 17 sources, and others at'3,070 -and 4,200 feet, all cold carbonated and ferruginous. On the affluents of the Msimta: at 2,220 feet on the Pslukh River a cold alkaline and carbonated source, temperature 10.5' 0.,. and on the Osmltchu River, at 5,481) feet, an alkaline ferruginous spring, temperature 7.20 0. 248. Mikhallov, Black Sea ProvInce, district of Novorossisk, near GuelendJik; -a strongly Waline spring, temperature 21.80 0. 247. Mikhailov-Slepteov, Province of Terek, district of Sunja; between these -two places, about 850 feet above the sea, there are several groups of warm and hot sources; (1) Three warm sulphurous sources, temperature 850 to 36 0., uced for bathing; (2) several alkaline-saline*sources, sulphuretted, temperature 310 to 69* J. used for bathing and one for drinking; (3) several alkaline-Mmlne springs of lower temperature, down to 200 C. used for drinking. The hotter the waters the more they are impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen. -One source, temperature 17* 0., also contains Glauber salt. 248. Miatli, Province of Terek, district of Khassav-Yurt, in a wild valley on the Sulak River, in hot climate; 5 hot sulphurous sources, temperature 440 to '00 C. Also alkaline ferruginous sources, temperature 37* to 40 C., ani hot .aulphurouq muds. 240. Mokhbulag, Province of Zakatall,. Georgia; severdl alkaline And sat. phuretted sources, temp. 16 to 200 C. 250. Muganlo: Province and District of Tiflis, Georgia, on the right bank temp. 80 C. of 251. River Iorl; Province . the Murdukh, a cold alkaline saline spring, of Batalpash; an alkaline carof Kuban, district bonattd source. 252. Murakvali, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia, on the 2 , t right bank of the River Kura; a hot mineral spring. 253. Mukbravani, Province and district of Tiflis, Georgia; a sulphurous -source,Nagrakhan, also some of 1 254. containing Province naphtha. district of Novo-Bayazld, on Arkhashln Erlvan, River; a cold alkaline carbonated source, tasting like Selters water. 255. Nadjikho, Province of Zakatall, 64orgia; a cold sulphurous source. 256. Nakslakevi, Province of Kutals, district of Senak; a bathing resort -with several warm sources, temperature'32 to 330 C. Between it and Akhalkalaki a warm alkaline sulphurous spring. 257. Nakurdevi, Province of Tifils, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a cold -sulphuroUs spring. 258. Naichik, Province of Terek; altitude 1,700 feet; a climatic station. '259. Holy Island, hear Baku; Lontains cold sulphurous sources, temperature 110 to 12' 0. 260. Nar, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, at altitude 5,810 feet; 4i cold mineral spring, temperature 10.30 C.
NfATIONAL REPUBLIC or. GEORGIA

201. Natzarull. Province of Kutals. district of Ratcha, Georgia; a ferruginous carbonated spring. 262. Neut-Kutan, Province of Daghestan. distr.et of Kaltago-Tabassaran; a cold sulphurous spring. 263. Noa-Kal, Province of Terek, district of Viadicaucase; a cold ferruginous spring. 284. Novorosslsk, on Black Sea; sea baths from June to October, also medieinal mud baths. 265. Norkao, Province of Terek; a cold ferruginous spring. 266. Nophti, Province and district of Baku; cold sulphurous sources. 267. Odokhara, Black Sea Province, near Sukhum, Georgia; cold sulphurous sources. 268. Olssungur, Province of Terek, near Grozny; a hot sulphurous source. 269. Okiz, Province of Tiflts, lqtrict of Akhaltzik. Georgia; a mineral .source of unknown composition. 270. Okribi, Province and district of Kutais. Georgia, near the village Dzungurl, at altitude 1,470 feet; a cold sulphurous and two alkaline sources, which have been capped and are used in a bathing establishment. 271. Oloda, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, - Georgia; a slightly saline source. 272. Onissi, Province of Kutais. district of Ratcha, Georgia, at altitude .8,220 feet, in good climate and picturesque surroundings; 2 groups of cold sources, alkaline-saline and alkali ne.ferruginous. 273. Otingo, Province of Batum, district of Artvin, Georgia, at altitude 6,250 feet; a chemically neutral spring, temperature 330 0. 274. Oshora, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a carbonated spring. 275. Panakethi, same district, on the left batik of the Kuia River; a mineral source of unknown composition. 276. Panjurethl, Province of Kars. district of Olti; a carbonated source. 277. Parsma, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a cold carbonated source. 278. Peklo, Province of Kuban, on the shore of the Sea of Azoff; a cold ant. phurous source. 219. Penlak, Province of Kars, district of Olti; a sulphurous source. 280. Petrovsk, Province of Daghestan; sea baths, sulphurous sources and mud. 281. Plate, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia, at altitude of -5,720 feet, In good climate; many cold ferruginous and carbonated sources, some tasting bitter, others depositing oxide of iron. 282. Podkumok, Province of Terek, district of Platlgorsk; saline dd bitter sources. 283. Polkovnitchle, Black Sea Province, near Tuapse; a cold sulphurous spring In a beautiful valley, and 4 nilles from it the Morosoff sources, cold saline-alkaline, rich in iodine; the latter have been capped and are being used. 284. Prishibinski, Province of Baku, district of Leakoran; 4 groups of sources spring up in an old forest in a healthy district. They are rich in alkaline salts and sulphuretted hydrogen and have high temperatures, between 55 and 90* C., and are used for bathing. 285. Promis-Abano, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a warm sulphurous source, temperature 250 C. 286. 0se!upsa, Province of Kuban, district of Ekaterinodar; several groups of sources, sulphurous, saline, and ferruginous, cold, and near the station Kentchevol there are 10 hot sulphurous, temperature between 410 and 52.5" C., which are being used for baths. 287. Pslukh, Black Sea Province, near Sotchl, Georgia, at altitude 2,340 feet; an alkaline carbonated source containing much bicarbonate of iron; used for drinking. 288. Pshavell, Province of Tiflis, district of Telaw, Georgia; a hot sulphurous and carbonated source, temperature .37.50 C., depositing chalk. 289. Platigorsk, Province of Terek; contains a number of warm and hot sulphurous springs which are used for bathing, and partly also for drinking. Their temperatures vary between 28.51 and 46.80 C. A well-known health resort. 290. Rashtchupin, Province of Terek, district of Sunja; a bitter salne spring. 291. Roki, Province of Tiflis, district of God, Georgia, at altitude 4,430 feet; sources. two cold ferruginous and carbonated
122
NATIONALR E
U2UJ
oir ozowou
292. Rua, Province of Ktals, Georgia; several cold sulphurous sources. 293. Rustavi, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltsik; two mineral springs of unknown composition. 294. Rutil-Goddos, Province of Daghestan, district o Gunlb; a warm neutral source, temperature 35' C.; very popular with the natives. 295. Rikal-Kam, Province of Daghestan, district of Kurin, at altitude 1,750 feet; two groups of alkallue-saline springs, temperature 320 to 36.54 C., and a third group of hot sulphurous springs. Some of the former are used by the natives for baths, others for drinking, and are also bottled and exported to Tiflis, etc. 296. Sabeka, Province of Kutais, Georgia; a warm sulphurous spring. 297. Sadgherl, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia, 1,180 feet above sea level; a slightly sulphuretted source, temperature 210 C. 298. SadJavakho, Province of Kutals, distrit of Ozurghetl, Georgia; a ferruginous carbonated source. 299. Sallan Muds, at Baba-Zanan, Province of Baku, district of Djevat; conMst of greenish.gray salt water mixed with slimes and semiliquid muds of a temperature of 440 C., through which combustible gases bubble up; their froth also contains naphtha. The muds are used by the natives foi baths against rheumatism, etc. About 10 miles from them a stream of cold alkaline-saline water springs from a hill. 300. Sanib, Province of Tclrek, district of Vladicaucase. at altitude 7,29 feet; several saline springs of temperature 35" to 55* C. 301. Sarikamish, Province and district of Kars; a carbonated ferruginous 302. Saro, Pr-n7'nce of Tiflis. district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia; a warm spring of 210 C. 303. Sasasbe, Province of Kutais, district of Letehkhum. Georgia; an alkaline ferruginous spring containing Glauber salt and strongly carbonated, temperature 13.80 C. 304. Sasitl, Province of Dagbestan, district of Andi; two ferruginous and carbonated springs. 305. Slnak, Province of Erivan, district of Suramll; a cold ferruginousspring and several hot sulphurous ones, temperature 37.5' C. 308. Simonethi, Province and district of Kutals, Georgia; a cold ferruginous source. 307. Siaku, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran: a cold bitter salile source. 308. Sion, Province of Tiflis, district of Dushet, Georgia. near Mount Kasbek; a cold ferruginous and carbonated source. 309. Sleptsov, Province of Terek, district of Sunja; a bitter saline spring. 310. 8mada, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia; a bitter saline spring. 311. Soleno-Yar, Province of Kuban; a saline spring containing Iodides and bromides. 312. Sotchl, Black Sea Province, Georgia; sea and mud baths, climatic health resort. 313. Senaki, Province of Kutals. Georgia; several sulphurous springs probably running through the neighboring beds of sulphide ores. 314. Stir-Khokh, Province of Terek, district of Vladicauca.se. at altitude 8,440 feet; a cold sulphurous source, temper, Are 20 C. 315. SadJuk Lake, Black Sea Province, Georgia; a lake about half a mile long and not more than 7 feet deep, the bottom being formed of black mud with a strong smell of petroleum and ammonia. No accommodation. 316. SunJa, Province of Terek; a warm sulphurous sources, temperature 250 C. 317. Supsa, ProviLce of Kutais, district of Ozurghetl, Georgia; a ferruginous spring. 318. Surab, Province of ErIvan, district of Nakhidjevan; carbonated springs. 319. Suram, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a summer mountain resort; In the vicinity mineral sources. 320. Surmushl, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkum, Georgia; a sulphurous source, very healthy neighborhood. 321. Sukhum, Black Sea Province, Georgia; sea baths and very mild climate which makes it one of the best health resorts on the Black Sea; 6 miles from the town a sanatorium for tuberculous patients; season October to May. 322. Sip. Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol; a carbonated spring.
spring.
N~ATIONALTIE1!PUDITC OF GEORGI1A
123
823. Senna Stanltza, Province of Kuban, district of Temrluk; a'cold sulphurous spring. 324. Tabassaran, Province of Terek, near Derbent; a ferruginous carbonated spring. 325. Talght, Province of Daghestan, district of Temir, at altitude 810 feet; several warm sulphurous sources, temperature 20 to 350 C. with abundant sulphuretted hydrogen, and a flow of 270,000 gallons per day. 326. Tambukan Lake, Province of Terek, district of Platigorsk, at 1,830 feet above sea level, nearly 1% miles long, but only between 2 and 3 feet deep; the mud at the bottom is extracted for medicinal purposes. On the south shore of the lake a ferruginous source springs up. 327. Tarikhoni, Province of Kutats. district of Letchkium, Georgia; several sulphurous source. 328. Tars-tchai, Province of Elizabetpol. district of Kasakh; a cold carbonated spring. 329. Teberda. Province of Kuban. district of Batalpash; a mountain resort at 4,280 feet above sea level, with very mild and uniform climate; season May to September. Near it the Djemaget sources of ferruginous and carbonated waters. 330. Tedelethl., Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan. Georgia; a cold carbonated source, of temperature 80 C. Near it outflows of naphtha. 331. Tezeri, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia; a c!.ebonated spring. 332. Teikhtengen. Province of Terek. district of Nalch-L; a carbonated source tasting like the "Narzan " water. 333. Teklati, Province of THIs, district of Senaki. Georgia; a cold sulphurous source, temperature 120 C. 334. Teml-Goev, Province of Daghestan: h,-t sulphurous sources, temperature 430 C. 335. lemriuk. Province of Kuban. on Ttiman Peninsula; 5 groups of mud volcanoes, from 20 to 30 in each group; much frequeated Fea baths, but the muds are not used. 330. Terter, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Yevanshir, at altitude 12,450 feet; hot, slightly sulphurous sources, temperature 490 C. 337. Tiflis, at altitude 1,450 feet; several warm and hot sources of abundant sulphurous waters used in the municipal bath; temperature from 80' to 470 0. 338. Trusso, Province of Tiflls, district of Dushet, Georgia. near Kasbek Mountain; several cold springs, one carbonated, temperature 100 C.; at 7,000 feet a similar one. temperature 50 C., and a suphurous one, temperature 120 C.; also others carbonated with ferruginous taste. temperature 100 C. 339. Tuap~e, Black Sea Province, good sea baths and winter climatic station. 340. Tusllan, Province of Kuban, district of Temruk; 5 mud lakes, one of which is used for medicinal purposes; it contains Iodine and ammonia. 341. Turtcbiliaz, Prorince of Elizabetpol, district of Zangesour. at altitude 6,000 feet; several cold ferruginous sources, temperature 110 to 170 0. 342. Ubln. Province of Kuban, district of Ekaterinodar; a saline-alkaline spring, similar to Essentuki and Borjorn waters; also several cold sulphurous sources, temperature 90 C. 343. Umakhan-Yurt. Province of Terek. district of Kislar: several hot sulphurous sources, temperature 400 to 600 C. 344. Umpir. Province of Kuban, district of Maikop; a bitter saline spring. 345. Uraveli. Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia. at 4,870 feet above the seea: several ferruginous and carbonate springs which have been capted for bathing purposes. 340. Uravi. Province of Kutals, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a carbonated spring. 347. Utsera, Province 'of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, at altitude 3,250 feet; three groups of cold alkaline and ferruginous springs, which are being used for bathing and drinking. Good accommodation for visitors; season July to October. 348. Trafa-tehal, Province of Daghestan, district of Kinrin; several cold' sulphurous sources, temperature 12' C. 349. Delijan, Provinces of Elizabetpol, district of Kasakh; 6 miles from the town there are several ferruginous and carbonated springs, of 160 C., producing about 18,000 gallons per day. 350. Khalkal, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Nukha; a hot sulphurous spring.
1I4
851. Kliarves, Province of Terek, district of Vladicaucase, at altitude 8,(00 fe t; a ferruginous spring. 852. Kbasantl, Province of Terek, district of Naltehik, altitude 5,900 feet; a carbonated ferruginous spring, resembling Narzan. 353. Khas.Tchiftik, Province of Kars; a mineral spring. 854. Khakbabo, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a cold ferruginous and carbonated spring. 855. Khakhamati, same district; a hot sulphurous spring. 856. Kheledula, Kutais Province, district of Letchkhum, Georgia; a cold carbonated spring. 357. Khertvissi, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalaki, Georgia; two sulphurous sources, temperature 250 0. 358. Khibesblu, Province of Daghestan, (Ustrict of Kiurin; a sold ferxuginous source, temperature 6" 0. 359. Khidirzinde, Province of Baku; a cold sulphurous source. 860. Khinalug, Province of Baku, district of Kuba, altitude 7,100 feet; a mineral source. 361. Khipedj, Province of Daghestan, district of Kiurin, at altitude 5,200 feet; a ferruginous spring, temperature 60 C. 362. Khlsso, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethi, Georgia; a hot alkaline and sulphuretted spring. 363. Kbikhats, Province of Kutats, district of Sharopan, Georgia; cold ferruginous carbonated and sulphuretted springs. 364. Khnou, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur, altitude 3,000 feet; an alkaline carbonated spring, temperature 450 4. 305. Khoble, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a warm sulphurous source. 366. Khozapin, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhalkalakl. Georgia; a cold sulphurous spring. 367. Khomur, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; a cold ferruginous and carb6nated spring, temperature 160 C. 368. Khonok, province of Daghestan, district of Andi; a carbonated spring. 369. Khosta, Black Sea Province, near Sotchi, Georgia; Ua baths. 870. Khudes-Su, Province of Kuban, district of Gatalpash; an alkaline carbonated spring, temperatxi.t: 180 C. 371. Tsagverl, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; several cold ferruginous and carbonated sources, temperature 9.60 to 110 C. Health resort, In a very picturesque position. 372. Tsalshi, Province of K'tals, district of Zugdidi, Georgia; warm alkaline and sulphurous sources, containing abundant sulphuretted hydrogen, temperature 260 C. 378. Tzismta, Black Sea Province, near Sotchi, Georgia. 4.000 feet above thesea; 2 cold carbonated sources, temperature 7" C. 374. Tsemi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; a bathing estabUshment for tuberculosis patients. 875. Tsessl, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a sulphurous. spring. 376. Taina-Ubani, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzik, Georgia; several hot neutral sources, temperature 27' to 350 C., In very healthy climate. 377. Tsikkls.DJvarl, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia; several warm sulphurous sources, temperature 340 C., in a healthy picturesque spot, 7,200 feet above the sea. 378. Tsorkh, Province of Terek, district of Sunjen; cold sulphurous sources. 379. Tsotskheba, Province of Batum, Georgia; an alkaline carbonated spring. 380. Tsrla, Province of Batum, district of Artvin, Georgia; several ferruginous sources. 381. Tskhalthblla, Province of Tiflis, district of Akbaikalaki, Georgia; warm mineral sources, temperature 22.50 C. 382. Tskhaltubo, Province and district of Kutals, Georgia, at altitude 830 feet; warm alkaline and sulphurous sources, temperature 28 to 35' C.: total daily outflow nearly 1,000,000 gallons; used for bathing and drinking; great affluence of visitors during the summer and autumn season. 383. Tskhmorl, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a sulphurous source.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROIA
125
, 384. Tchagan-Mamet, Province of Baku, district of Shemakha a hot Sulphurous spring. 385. Tchals, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan; a sulphurous spring. 380. Lessevi, Province of Kutais, Georgia, altitude 3,200 feet; several alkaline ferruginous sources, in a healthy wooded spot. 387. Tehamarda, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan; a mineral spring of unknown composition. 388. Tchassavall, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia; a mineral source. 389. Tchvishipse, Black Sea Province, district of Sotchi, Georgia; a cold alkaline and carbonated source. 30. Tchemgakhuar, Black Sea Province, near Sukhum, Geoiga; a salphurous source. 891. Tcherek, Province of Terek, district of Nalchik; a cold carbonated source. 392. Tchermuk, Province of Kars, district of Olti; a hot sulphurous spring, temperature 350 C. 393. Telfermialiur, Province of Kuban, Temriuk district; a warm sulphurous source. 394. Tchirakh, Province of Daghestan, district of Kiurin; a ferruginous spring. 395. Tchir-Yurt, Province of Terek, district of Khassav-Yurt; several hot springs, alkaline sulphurous, temperature 44* to 69* C., and alkaline ferraginous, temperature 370 to 400 0. 396. Tchlkha, Province of Kutais, district of Sharopan, Georgia; a sulphurous spring. 397. Tebokianl, Province and district of Kutals; several sulphurous sources of temperature 810 C., which are used for bathiDg; also sulphurous saline muds. 398. Tchotchort, Province of Kars, district of Ardahan, Georgia, on the-left bank of the River Kura; a sulphurous source. 399. Tchtbill-Tskhali, Province of Kutals, district of Slharopan, Georgia; two warm sulphurous sources near the villages Beshathubani and Zvarl. 400. Tchumathelethi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gori, Georgia, near the town Suram; a cold sulphurous source used by the Inhabitants. 401. Tchakhriant, Province of Tiflts, district of Telaw, Georgia; two sulphurous springs. 402. Sharmlant, Province of Tiflis, district of 'bushethi, Georgia, on River Aragvi, near the Station Miethi of the Georgian Military Road; a sulphurous spring. 403. Shatili, Province of Tiflis, district of Thionethl, Georgia; a cold carbonated source. 404. Shirvan, district of Maikop, in Kuban Province; cold ferruginous carbonated and sulphurous sources. 405. Shir-Shrl, near Salyani, on the Caspian Sea; a saline spring. 406. Shistapi, Province of Erivan, district of Alexandropol, at altitude 4,590 feet; a carbonated spring. 407. Shtkhliar, Province of Elizabetpol, district of Zangesour; a carbonated spring. 408. Shovy, Province of Kutais, district of Ratcha, Georgia, near the village Gloli; cold ferruginous and carbonated sources; a sanatorium has been opened here surrounded by pine forests and In beautiful climate. 409. Dzegoba, Black Sea Province, near Sukhum, Georgia; a saline spring on the left bank of the River Bzip. 410. Stavler, Province of Kutais, district of Letchkhum, Georgia, on the right bank of the River Inguri; a cold carbonated spring. 411. Shurdini, Province of Tiflis, district of Akhaltzlk, Georgia; a ferruginous carbonated source. 412. Edissi, Province of Tiflis, district of Gorl, Georgia, at altitude 6,360 fet on the right bank of the River Liakhvi; a cold carbonated spring, tempera. ture 8* 0. 413. Elssu, Province of Baku, district of Lenkoran; a carbonated spring. 414. Erimani, Province of Tflls, district of Gori, Georgia; a ferruginous carbonated source. 415. Yatag-Tchal, Province of Daghestan, district of Samur; a carbonated spring.
120t
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF. GEOflOIA
,Out of 415 springs enumerated above and registered in the whole of Caucasla more than half are on the Georgian territory, and if further sclent8.e Investigations are carried out, the number of springs will undoubtedly yet Increase. All the mineral springs on the Georgian territory are State property, and theror their development and organization will undoubtedly be a considerable source of revenue for Georgia and profitable for foreign capital which may be employed In that direction. PART IV. WATER POWER As Caucasia Is divided by one of the highest mountain chains of the globe, at several points covered by eternal snows, its great number of rivers and streams, shown by the map, might only be expected, and if nature hss dealt parsimoniously with the country with regard to coal, it has lavishly made up this deficiency by substituting water power as an inexhaustible source of energy. Through the position of the country between the two seas the length of its rivers Is somewhat limited, the longest one, the Kura, attaining 825 miles, while the Kuban and Teick run for about 300 and 400 miles, respectively. But their fall is considerable, amounting in many places to rapids, and waterfalls of the smaller streams are also very numerous. Occasions for the erection of hydraulic power stations are therefore to be found in almost every part of the country. The River Kura, between Tiflis and Piras, in Georgia, has a fall of about 300 meters and could give 300,000 the horsepower by using only 100 cubic meters of its water per second. It, northern Caucasus the River Kuban could produce 175,000 horsepower on 350 meters fall between Batalpash and Kavkas Statiop, and a further 45,000 horsepower between the latter station and Ekaterinodar.1 These figures result from superficial and incomplete investigations only and do not consider the many other smaller rivers and affluents which in their higher reaches have considerable falls and abidance of water all the year round. Unfortunately this natural store of energy has scarcely been tapped, principally through the lethargy of the former Russian Government, which did not initiate a single h3'draulic enterprise either for private or public purposes. The power and light installations now existing in the country are all due to private capital, which Is insufficient for the proper development of this kind of industry. Hydraulic establishments generating electric current for light and power exist now at the following places: In the northern Caucasus near the station "Mineral Waters," a power station of 1,000 horsepower. In Georgia: Tiflis the capital, possesses 18 electric stations and substations, the largest ones belonging to the Belgian Tramway Co. a.,d to the Georgian nobility. Gori electric station belongs to Prince 1. G. Amilakvari. Kutais has two stations on the Rion River, for power and ight. Adjamethi, near Kutais, Borjom, Akhaltzik, and Akbalkalaki have local statons for lighting. Batum is provided with current from a station built about 10 miles distant in the Tchorokh valley. Of the Georgian coast towns, Sukhum possesses a station of 600 horsepower about 4 miles inland; New Athos and the climatic station Gagri are also provided with current, the latter from the River Jokvara.Considering the strenuous efforts made in other countries possessing water power to utilize it for modern industrial purposes, the above enumeration makes a poor comparison, which must be laid at the door of the former Russian Government.
I These figures were compiled in 1919. Th best Information available is from Reginald Aubrey Fessenden'3 The Deluged Civilization of the Caucasus Isthmus, publised in 1923, the writer of which was the the englnering commissioner for Ontario Niagara Falls Powr Commission. On page 84 Lathe kil lowing statement: "The Caucasus Is better provided with power than any other place in the world. The principal sources
hersepiwer. " . Hydraulic, from the melting of the glaciers and rainfal, 120,0000o 12. Hydraulic, from flow equal to evaporation, frvm Black Sea to Casplan Basin, 6.00O,OObarsepower."
---
DAflIEL PASS AND
TREK
RIVER, GEORGIA
BEST AVAILABLE COPY
HION1AI, xmpuBTalo op GO(ROIA
127
A more ambitious project was worked out a few years ago by an English engineer who proposed to supply the greater part of Caucasia with electrical current from two generating stations of large dimensions, one of them situated near the Kasbek Mountain and the other in the south, near Lake Gokeha, fot which purpose concessions were granted to him in 1912. The Kasbek power plant was to utilize the upper Terek River near the Georgan Military Road, where abundant water and a considerable fall were to product 40,000 kilowatts, while the water from the lake was to be conducted to the second plant by means of a pipe of 4 miles in length and producing a fall of 2,400 feet; By means of these two Installations and a network of conductors covering the whole country high-tension current for light and power was to be supplied " the railways, tramways, ports, factories, mines, municipalities, etc. Unfortunately the execution of this great plan could not be started within the stipulated time, and the concession lapsed; but in view of the general search for cheap power and current, specially also for the electrochemical industry, it is quite certain that some similar project will soon be taken up again. Many chemical and metallurgical industries have in recent years made enormous strides with the aid of electricity, and the countries where current can b produced cheaply, like 8candinavia, Switzerland, French Alps, etc., have greatly profited by the modern exploitations erected on their rapid rivers. There is no doubt that the unmeasured possibilities of Caucasia will be utilized in a similar manner, specially for the manufacture of ferro-manganese, calcium carbide, and nitrogen compounds for fertilizers, etc., for which the raw materials are ready in the country. It has also been found elsewhere that, where cheap electric current is available, all sorts of small local industries spring up, and this will undoubtedly also be the case in Georgia, which hitherto h&R been more ant agricultural than an industrial country. Cheap power will also be of particular importance for the southeastern lowlying parts of Caucasia, where large tracts of otherwise suitable lands can not be cultivated for lack of water, and where irrigation will bring forth fertile crops of cereals, rice, cotton, etc. Situated in a region quite mountainous, where the summits are covered with snow and glaciers, Georgia possesses torrents and waterfalls which at their lowest flow in winter can produce nearly 2,500,000 horsepower and in summer over 4,000,000 horsepower. A special State hydraulic department exists in Tiflis (capital of Georgia), which supervises the whole utilization of water power on Georgian territory. PART V. TiE GEORGIAN MANGANESE INDUSTRY
ITS DEVELOPMENT AND WORLD IMPORTANCE
Manganese is a metal closely related to iron and resembling it in aspect, texture, and specific weight. In nature it does not exist in the metallic state, but mostly as oxidized ores, hydrated or containing also other elements. The principal ones are the following: 1. Polianite is the pure peroxide of manganese, containing 63.2 per cent of the metal. 2. Pyrolusite, a crystalline peroxide of manganese containing more or less water, and from 60 to 63.2 per cent of metallic manganese in its pure state. 3. Psilomelane, also a hydrated peroxide of manganese, amorphous, partly combined with potassium or barium, and containing from 45 to 60 per cent of metallic manganese. 4. .langanite is a hydrated sesquioxide of manganese, containing in its pure state ,12.4 per cent of metallic manganese. 5. Braunite is a combination of the monoxide and sesquioxide of manganese with some silica, and contains up to 69 per cent of metallic manganese. All these ores are black or dark brown, or grayish and often crystalline. They are found in many places, but only in a few of them do they exist in quantities large enough for commercial exploitation. Manganiferous iron ores are of great importance in the United States, but the world's consumption of manganese ores, which before the war had risen to between one and one-half and two million tons per year, is almost exclusively covered by three countries--Georgia, India, and Birazil, the first one of which interests us specially here.
128
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA TE Oat DEPosITS
The Georgian manganese deposits are situated in the Caucasus, near Tchiaturi, in the valley of the River Kvirila, an affluent of the Rion, about 40 miles east of Kutais in the Province of the same name. The kvirila River divides the deposits into two principal parts, which are again crossed by the numerous tributaries of the river, forming seven plateaux, viz, Rgani, rgani, Mvenievi, and Darkveti on the right bank, and Perevisi, Shucruti, and Itkhrvisi on the left bank. The total area of ore-bearing lands is about 400 square miles, of which one-half contains good ore; and the quantity of ore available for exploitation is estimated at about 200,000,000 tons, so that at the present rate of extraction there is enough material in the deposits for more than a century. The outcrops of the ore are situated at about 1,000 feet above the Kvirlla River, and are visible on the steep, almost vertical sides of the hills, as well as in the nar. row and tortuous side valleys. The deposits are of a sedimentary formation. The ore is stratified in successive layers of a thickness varying between 6 inches and about 30 inches, making a total thickness of from 2 to 3 yards. These strata of ore are separated by beds of eocene sands. The whole formation is horizontal, with a slight inclination toward northeast. It reposes on limestone, while the roof is formed by sandstone. The lowest layers of ore lying directly on the limestone and having usually a thickness of from 8 to 12 inches, consists of the purest peroxide of mangancse, while the highest strata are often of a reddish-brown color near contact with the overlying sandstone, and give the lowest assays; but in general about one-third of the ore, as it comes from the mines, is directly suitable for the market. Geologically, the formation of the ore beds must have taken place by precipitation from running waters, the thinner strata being deposited by quickly moving water, while the thicker ones would have been formed more quietly, while the sands were brought along during the intervening periods. At all events, the incrustations found in the beds prove that the deposition of the minerals must have taken place in a sea or lake of somewhat brackish water, probably on the shore of a shallow bay, where the currents often changed. The ore is pyrolusite, partly of crystalline fibrous structure of somewhat grayish-black metallic luster, partly amorphous of dull black or brownish-black aspect. It forms compact and rather hard masses in the continuous beds, and also occurs in granular (oolitic) form mixed with the sandstone, or in more friable masses mixed with the strata of sand and clay. The following analyses show the great purity of the ore and the almost total absence of obnoxious elements.
TABLE
I.-Complete analyses of tchiaturiore samples

Per cent
jPer cent iPer cent

1.01.
6.871 2.141i 2.88 2.34
Moisture ---------------------------------------------------------------Silica ..................................................................... Alumina ..................................................................
2.40
4.49 1.68
1.20
Ironoside ..........................................................------- ........ Manganese peroxide ..............................................

Manganese protoxile .....................................................
0. 0.03 38.607 957 1 0.76 20

0.88 - --1.93 0.80 0.&s
84. 90 0.33 8.32

2.50 1.19
Lime ..................................................................... Magnesia .......................................................... .
Baryt ............................................................. Salihuric a id ........................................................... i.acidPbospboricadd...................................................0.4 Or
0.87 .24 '

0.40
a.11
0.3
0.01
Ma er ......................................................... Phoslohorus ............................................................... EXTRACTION 33.70 0.18
09.21
54.83 0.17
99.12 50.60 0.15
As might be expected from the description of the deposits, the extraction of the ore contained in them does not present any difficulties, as it is only a question of d-iving horizontal galleries along the ore beds in the comparatively soft country rock. This work can be done with picks and shovels only, no complicated mining installations being required for hoisitng the ore, which is mostly carried to the pit's mouth in wheelbarrows or small trucks on rails. The mines are also quite dry and free from noxious gases, so that no better conditions could be desired in a mine. The galleries are usually from 60 to 120 yards long, some
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GROEOIA
129
of them reach even 250 yards. The roof is mostly kept up by pillars of ore of some 2 yards in diameter, and little timbering is done as pit props are very expensive on account of high railway freight. As mentioned, the richest ore beds are found near the Kvirila River, in the plateaux of Mgvemevi, Zeda,-Rgani, and Shucruti, while in the further fields the veins get gradually thinner. This fact accounts for the great differences in the output of the various fields according to the following statistics, showing the individual outputs during the years mentioned:
TABLE
lI.-Produdionin tons of the different fields
1885-1899M 1904-1913
1913
1. Mgvemevi ...................................................... 664, 835 1,910,073 372,70 2. Zeda-Rgeni ..................................................... 638,042 033,092 157,080 3. Shucruti ........................................................ I 451,60 799,137 97, 758 4. Perevisi ......................................................... 267.08 546,351 101,984 5. Rgani ........................................... 157,680 51,425 65,161 6. Itkbrvlsi ......................................... 3::.665 70. 623 0.113 7. Darkvetl ........................................................ I 38,66O 388,758 97,614 S.ialipauri ......................................... 9,823 17,473 ............ 9. Tabagredi ............................................ 5,068 50.177 13,145 10. Navarzeti .................................................... 3, 77 2. 742 ............ 11. Barkvelat-Ubanl ............................................. . 0 126,85 4060O Total ......................................................... 2, 275,971j 5,363,708 95,645
About three-fourths of the whole production, therefore, comes from the villages situated on the right bank of the river, which contain the most important exploitations. The number of mines worked in 1895 was 181, containing 379 galleries, and the average production per mine was 545 tons. In 1899 the number of mines had increased to 429, containing 820 galleries and belonging to 290 producers. The record quantity of 550,000 tons mined during that year, therefore, represented an average yearly production of only 1,900 tons per producer, and about two-thirds of the actual number of mines produced even less than this average. In 1906 the number of mines in exploitation was 443, of which there were 106 in Mgvemevi, 92 in Zeda-Rgani, 68 in Shucruti, 68 in Perevisi, 50 in Rgani, and the rest in the other villages mentioned above. The following tables show the number of mines existing at various times in the district, and the number of galleries in them (generally only one or two), and further details of the light mining railways working in 1913 for the transport of the ore in the galleries and from the mines to the railheadTABLE III.-Number of mines and galleries
... ;_1891900 J I 1902t10 . _ 19011

Mines.. 439 1 '49 Galemes:.:::6 20 715
94
I i1912 1905 iq 1907 1908 109 1910 19111 I 1913 !1914 190IS 443 39'5 1114 688 M 5 C 268 1191 150 3 230 174 200 303 281 437 192 228
- ---
225 277 251I12iI1 202 5121470 41513021343
TABLE IV.-Light railways in the Tehiaturi mining fields in 1913.

Column A. NumNr of mints containing railways. Column B. Length cf railways inside the galleries, in ysrds. Column C. Length of railways in the open, In yards. Column D. IA ngth ofrailways Ldid dunng 1913, in lards. Column E. Number of wsgern. Column F. Capacity c-f wagons In hundrcdweigbt. the A
Tabagrebi ................................. 5
B
2&37
C
3,1W
D
2,298
E
88
F 74
32 397 59 11-23
Zeda-Rgan ............................ Pereviss Shucrut...............................
Sark-egat .............................. 4 Sgvimevi ................................49 Darkveti .............................. 8
22
8 r/8
3,2-0 19,938 3,493
25
4,538
4 817 3,57 17 1,577
2-16
Itkhvisi ................................I
14 4.............................. ,S073 2,126 3,372 367 7 1 962 62 1 701 ... 68
1,773 4,5676 1,620
18-23 10-28 16
13-18 7-28
13
130
NATIONAL RfPtMLIO1F OKROEJA 01

DRESSING AND WASHING OF THR oRE
The natural position of the ore beds between layers of sand and clay make it In most places Impossible to extract the ore alone without admixtures of the latter. The lump ore is picked out by hand, mostly in the open, but the smaller granules must be separated by water concentration in washing plants. Primitive appliances for the purpose had been used for many years, as the washed ore easily commanded a higher price in view of its containing much less silica. In the year 1910 about one-fourth of the whole exportation consisted of washed ore, and this quality was mostly exported via Batum. By washing, the mixed granular ore can be concentrated up to about 90 per cent of pure pyrolusite, containing nearly 60 per cent of metallic manganese, but these percentages are above the average of actual cargo deliveries, which will usually assay about ,53 per cent in the dry state. As with the increasing demand for ore the more remote mines had also to be drawn upon, the washing of ore on a larger scale became equally necessary, and plants for the purpose were enlarged and erected in various places along the River Kvirila and its tributaries. This increase of the washing soon became the cause of bitter complaints by the inhabitants of the Kvirila Valley, who also used the river for domestic purposes, for whih the water now became impossible, as it was polluted by the slices of the washeries. Petitions were addressed to the viceroy of the Caucasus, who first made an order to locate the washeries in the higher reaches of the river, and later forbidding to allow the slimes to run into the river on more than one day per week. But this regulation could not well be followed, and another idea was brought forward to place all the washeries near the river below Tchiaturi, and to form
there a large basin for receiving all the Fimes.
of the basin would be used for generating electrical power for a ferromanganese factory on the spot, etc. This project, unfortunately, was not realized, but the question of finding some other solution became so urgent that the Association of Manganese Producers offered prizes for better proposals. Several projects were submitted, but not accepted, principally because their application would have exceeded the maximum cost of the treatment, which had been stipulated at one-fourth kopek per pood (about 4d. per ton). In 1913 the viceroy appointed a special commission to study the matter again, and the res, lt was an order that manganese slimes must only be discharged into the river once a week during the winter months and once every three weeks during the summer months, and that after September 1, 1914, no slimes whatever would be allowed to run into the river. These measures seemed too drastic to be enforced at such comparatively short notice, and it was expected that further time wold he granted. The outbreak of the war and the cessation of work left, of course, the question in status quo, and it will have to be taken up again later on. In the meantime several further large washing plants had been finished between 1912-1914, and about two-thirds of all the ore extracte! was then washel. At aggregate capacity of all installations being sufficient, when terminated, for washing nearly th6 whole output. The washing itself, even by the be3t apparatus, cause3 a not inconsiderable loss of ore. The slimes from the washing amount to about .50 or 60 per cent of the ore treated, and consist of about 30 per cent of fine manganese ore and 70 per cent of sand and clay, so that the actual loss of manganese ore amounts to about 15 or 18 per cent of the original weight of the ore treated.
TRANSPORT
At the same time the overflow
the same time a niunher of a-lditional washeries were in course of erection, the
The question of transport has, perhaps with the exception of the last few years, always been the greatest difficulty with which the Georgian manganese industry had to contend. The extraction and dressing of the ore are comparatively easy and cheap, but the transport from the mines to the seaports, which was under the control of the state, was by the latter made into a source of great and excessive profit, while a less rapacious policy was the obvious duty of the former Russian Government, in order to foster this most important industry of the Caucasus, second only to that of petroleum. The exploitation of the Tchiaturi mines began in 1878, but remained on a very limited scale until after the Russo-Turkish war, when the Transcaucasian Rail-way line between Batum and Tiflis was opened in June, 1883. The station
181
Kvirfli of this line is situated at the lower end of the manganese mining field, near the junction of the Kvirila and Rion Rivers. It formed at the time the first real improvement making a large export trade possible, but it was far from sufficient, as the ore had still to be transported for some 25 miles from the mines to the railway, for which pu.pose no proper roads existed then on the steep sides of the ravines and in the narrow side valleys. The ore had to be carried down on horseback or two-wheeled ox carts; a horse would carry about 360 pounds in two baskets, while a cart spanned with oxen or buffaloes would take between 1 and IV tons. The cost of this cumbersome system was very high, and, besides, It could never be calculated beforehand, as it varied considerably according to the weather and seasons, and sometimes had to be suspended altogether. The construction of a branch railway line along the Kvirila River and in the imrnedhte vicinity of the principal mines could therefore only be a question of time, and in 1890 a project to this effect was ratified by the Government. It was to be a narrow-gauge line running from Sharopan Station to Tchiaturi, a distance of 26 miles. The line was to he consti icted and worked by the Government, and was begun in 1891. The official opening took place in May, 1893, running on a single track, with wagons carrying from 2 to 22 tons of ore each. The cost of the line was about 150,000. In view of later developments of the trade the narrow gauge was a mistake under which the industry still labors to-day, as it necessitates the transshipment of the ore at Sharopan from the narrow-gauge trucks of the branch line to the broad-gauge ones of the Transcaucasian Railway, which operation calists part of the lump ore to break up into undesirable dust. While constructing the railway the Government also took measures for the improvement of the existing horse tracks and for constructing macadanaized roads. These improvements were expected to cause a saving of about 25s. per ton on the cost of transport from the. mines to Kvirili; but such expectations were doomed to d-appointment, anl for various reasons the economy only amount.d to about 13s. per ton, the tariff on the branch line being fixed at 15 kopek per pood, or about 19s. per ton, for a distance of 23 miles. This rate is about 15 times as high as the charges on the other Transcaucasian railways for the same di.stance. Besides, the new line did its work in a very unsatisfactory manner; it was badly constructed, and certain portions of it were continually being washed away by floods. The rolling stock was insufficient, so that a considerable part of the ore had still to le brought down on horseback, ard Sharopan Station was used in preference to those situated higher up in the valley. In consequence of these difficulties and of the general crisis in the trade, partly caused by the competition of Chile, and also of India and Japan, partly by the high tariff charged by the railway, the exporters applied to the Government for a diminution of the excessive rate, as many hld iade forward contracts and were in face of heavy losses; hut their demand was not acceded to. The general dissatisfaction with the service of the railway continued during several years, specially as it was found that the Government made a net profit of at least 10s. per ton of ore carried, which was much more than the producers or exporters could usually expect. In fact, the whole cost of the railtuay was actually repaid by the profits made during the first to years of its existence. Only in 1897 a diminution of Is. 4d. per ton was granted'by the Government, and later the rate was fixed at 13s. 3d. per ton, but frequent stoppage and isufficient rolling stock still hampered the trade. With the extension of the export another difficulty made itself more and more felt, viz, the insufficient accommodation in the port of l'oti. There were only three berths for steamers loading from the quay, and almost always a number of others had to wait for their turn, lying out in the open roadstead, which in stormy weather is unsafe, so that damage by stranding, etc., often occurred. The delays frequently amounted to as much as three weeks and more, causing very heavy expense for demurrage and also stiffer freights, as the shipowners did not like the port. The loading of the steamers was effected by workmen carrying the ore in small baskets containing about 140 pounds. In this annmer froint 400 to 800 tons could be loaded per day, at a cost of 8d. per ton if carried directly from the railway cars to the ship, or Is. per ton if the ore had first been discharged in the docks. In order to overcome this difficulty some shippers erected accommodation in the port of Batum for shipping the ore from that port, and several steamers were dispatched during 1899 in good time. But there is not much room in this port for ore shipping on a large scale, and Poti still obtained the bulk of the business.
182
NATIONAL
BU.'OBLIO O
G(MORGIA
, On the repeated petitions of the shippers the rate of transport from Tehiaturi to Sharopan was lowered to 9s. 3d. per ton in the beginning of 1899, but on the other hand the sea freights rose against considerably on account of the shortage of tonnage. This acted unfavorably on the export trade, so that the Meeting of Manganese Producers decided in 1901 to petition the Government again for a further diminution of the railway tariff, but this demand was refused. The accommodation in the port of Poti had in the meantime been improved and the number of berths for steamers loading alongside quay was increased from thee to five, and as the railway also gave a better service most of the steamers could now be loadd directly from the wagons coming from Sharopan, n stocks or deposits being required in Poti. Nevertheless, profits of the producers were low, and in 1903 they again tried to obtain a diminution of the railway tariff from the Government, but with no better success than before. On the other hand, further improvements were introduced on the railway, and three new sidings were added on the Tchiaturi branch which made it possible to bring down 3,000 tons of ore per day to Sharop an, to be transferred to the broad-gauge trucks. Larger ore cars were also bought into use, carrying about 12 tons, and being more economical. Unfortunately, the strikes of 1905 greatly impeded the transport for some months, but after their cessation the demand from abroad increased in such proportions that the railway facilities could again not c.pe with them. In 1907 this flowing tide suddently turned, and the traffic on the railway diminished to such an extent that the shippers could obtain as many wagons as they wished, while formerly, in the busy years, they had to wait their turn and obtained wagons only in proportion to the stocks held by them at the railway platforms, viz, one wagon holding 12 tons for every 320 tons of stock. This system could now be abandoned, at least for the time being. In view of the poor condition of the trade the Government at last in 1909 reduced the railway tariff on the branch line to 7s. 4d. per ton, but in order to compete with the Indian manganese the shippers could only petition the Government again for a further diminution. This was (lone in 1909 and again in 1910, bu. the demands fell on deaf ears, as so often before. Many exporters had made contracts for 1911, based on an expected greater reduction, and were now hard hit, and the general cry was that the export trade could only be kept up by a diminution of the transport charges. The question was considered by the Tariff Commission in 1912, but as in the meantime the trade had again revived, and was apparently prosperous, the demand was refused, although the exporters tried to prove that the high ocean freights swallowed up all the profits. However, in order to give some satisfaction to the shippers the question of rebuilding the Tehiaturi branch line on i broad gauge was again ventilated; its necessity is recognized by everybody, but the execution of the project still remains in abeyance. The railway authorities also decided definitely to build branch lines to the mines in the side valleys. A fall in the sea freights to Europe caused a fre.-a spurt in the export business in 1913, and the available rolling stock on the l'a.ne' line became suddenly insuflicient, so that the old method of distributing ,%agons to tjie exporters in turn and according to their stocks on the platforms ha6 again to be resorted to. This forced many exporters who had only small stocks tn !-uy ore on trucks at heavy sacrifices from more fortunate holders. In order to avoid sudden rushes, as had now happened several times on quick improvements of the markets, the railway authorities no. offered to unload the ore on platforms at Poti and to reload it on wagons for transport to the steamers when the latter were ready at the quay. By this mearis it was expected that more ore would be kept in stock at Poti, thus giving the railway a more regular traffic. The year 1914 opened well with low rates of ocean freights, and the trade of the first six months beat all records, but the declaration of war interrupted this favorable outlook; the goods traffic was stopped on the railway, and the beasts of burden used in the nines were mostly requisitioned, so that the work had to be stopped. Some firms continued it spasmodically, and the railway al9o announced an increase of Is. 4d. per ton on its tariff, but the impossibility of exporting any ore rendered all further activities in the mines useless. Through all the fluctuations of the manganese trade during the last 30 years runs the continuous claim of the producers and exporters for cheaper railway freight. lle Government could have easily granted it, as it was making enormous profits on the small branch line of 26 miles; but it preferred its own immediate gain to the welfare of the community inLerested in this industry. Another reason of this
MILITARY
ROAD NEAR SUKHUM.
GEORGIA
NATIONAL
ZIPUBLO OP GEOROIA
it"
unfair treatment was the fact that several grand dukes were shareholders in,the manganese enterprises working in Nikopol, which district was highly patronized by the Government to the detriment of the vast deposits of Georgia. Thus the transport of ore from Tchlaturi to Poti, and thence by sea to Rotterdam, cost 30per centv more than that of Nikopol ore by railway to Germany. One improvement may yet be mentioned, although it is not due to the Government. In 1912 the muntcipality of Poti erected a very elaborate elevator for loading the ore, and after some breakdowns it came into proper working order and was used up to be beginning of the war. The initiative in the erection of the elevator and in other improvements in the port of Poti belongs to the distinguished mayor of the town, Mr. N. Nikoladze, a Georgian gentleman with high European education and very greatly esteemed. The following tables show the stocks of ore lying at the railway platforms at Tchiaturi at various times (V), the quantities handled by the railway (VI), the charges paid on them (VII), the income resulting from the latter (VIII). Figures after 1914 are not always given, as in October of that year Turkey entered the war and the mainstay of the Georgian manganese industry, the exports through the Straits of the Dardanelles, was stopped until December, 1918.
TABLB
V.-Stcks of manganese ore lying in Tchiaturi on January I of each year

Tons
Tons
129,032 1900-------------------300,355 1901 --------------------- 560,347 1902-------------------668, 177 1003-------------------454, 129 1904 -------------------- 412, 081 1905 --------------------- 315,774 1906 ------------------608,081 1907 ------------------1, 167, 371 1908 -------------------- 1,525,661
------
1899.....
1909.................... 1910 _ 1911 -------------------1912 _ -1913 -------------------19 14 -------------------1915 ------------------1916 -1017-
1, 135, 161 1, 046, 161 1, 030, 774 1, 031, 919 71, 564 507, 403 590, 709 746,693 735, 611
TABLE VI.-Transporl of manganese ore (in tons)
From I To 8haropan Tcbaturl I SharoPan to Putt to Sharopanl otherwiLe by than by m:in.line by rail rail railway
I.o.............. i
1900 ............... 492,362 1901 ............... 345,941 1902 .............. 4&5,873 t 1903 ...............495,70) 1904 .............. 11.597 19W .............. 381,499 1906 .............. 520,2 1907 .............. 553, 48
From
eFrem ItoSharona
by rail Tchiaturl
u
To
Sharopan
otherwise thMn by main-lino rail railway

28.245 3K 794
From Sharopan to Pot
402,032
21,454
22 2l 423, 5% 0 4. 516, M4
2. 161 2.44 13, 742 21,871
2.849 4.402 1,909
1908.............. M, 64S
348,790
109 .............. C0, 339
1910 .............. 638,819 49, 275 191 ............... 633, 72 497,61n8 1912.............. 957, 556 1913 .............. 1,114.135 1914 ..............i 700,007 ......... 706,907 5!0, 3"Total ...... !8., -- ,49 1 117,61i 8, C79,167 575, 3.9
1, 067 017,308 1,611 640,430 2,618 036, 34 1,096 958, 652 1,912 1,11G, 47
TABLE VII.-ai!way charges in 1913

Miles Rate per ton
Freight Tchlaturl to Shropsn ...................................................... Freight Sharopan to Poti ............................................................ Freight Sharopan to Batum .......................................................... Total Tchlatudr to Poil ............................................................. Total Tchiaturl to Batur ........................................................... Station charge .................................................................... Unloading at hropges ............................................................ n
120
128 148 156 ...
28
7 2 2 9 10
6A
4 2 10 6 2 8
Weighing ......................................................................... in .......... Tax for the Associatlon o7 Producers .......................... .............. .......... 1 8
194
WATIO)TAL REPUBLIC OP 6GWOIA
TaiLE -VIII.-Icome of the railway line from T1chifuri to Sharopn-28 miles

Numbt of tons carried
Income
Roybles 973,350
Taril, per ton

s. d. 13 3
e NNumber of Incom3 tons carried

19 ............ 381.499 RoUtble# 1,852.006
rul, per ton

. d. 9 3
16............ 168 ............ 300............ 1900............ 1901 .......... 192 ........... W ............ 1904............
149,514 2603 4(.082 492, 2 344.941 4M 498709 344,%7
6 3 ........... 149.952 1197...... ..... 172,000
976,15 1,119,720
1,632015 1,6 ,460 2 390,187 1,68,192 3201 Z87 2,476,470 2, 643, 799
13 3 13 3
13 9 9 9 9 9 9
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
52 w ............ 1907...........513488
190 ........... 3548 190 ............ 600,339 1910........... 63819 33.728 1911 ............ 1912........... 957,656 1913............1.114,135 1914 ............ 706,907
%686,960 Z,5M3,100
1,740,609 2421, 25 2,674,435 2,553,9 3 3,869,949 4.489,063 2, 835,446
9 3 9 3
9 7 7 7 7 7 7
3 4 4 4 4 4 4
LABOR
of the country, and Italians were imported to start the work and teach the inhabitants. However, the primitive methods employed were easily learned, and now everybody works in the mines, so that the Council of the Association of Producers itself has called it a kind of cottage industry. The work is usually done by small associations of three or four men, who are aid b r'ecew ';at a fixed rate per cubic sashen (12.7 cubic yards) of ore extracted r : piled up on the floor of the mine. The number of actual miners varies between 3,000 to 4,000, but besides these the a great number of persons are engaged in carrying the ore from the mines toconrailway platforms. Many of them carry their own ore, while others are to and undertaking tractors owning numbers of horses, mules, and donkeys, carry the ore at fixed rates. As all this work is mostly done by the small landowners and the native population themselves, labor troubles seldom crop up in the industry. Besides, the workmen enjoy the facilities provided by the Association of Producers in the way by housing, schools, hospitals, etc. Nevertheless, the district was also affected by the general strikes and troubles in the Caucasus during 1905 and 1913 and especially in the latter year the in the industry was paralyzed by a strike of the workmen during seven weeksthe cost busiest summer time. The result of it was an increase of Is. per ton in Indian of production at the mines, and incidentally the trouble also helped the producers to increase their shipments in that year by some 40 per cent. dressThe following tables show the number of men engaged in the mining andmining ing of the ore at different times (IX), their distribution in the variousthe comfields during 1913 (X), the wages paid to them in different years (XI), paratively low number of accidents happening in these mines (XII):
TABLE
In the beginning of the manganese industry there were no miners in this part
IX.-Number of men employed in the extradion and dressing of the ore

(excluding transport)
Men Men
1899 ----------------------1900----------------------1901 -----------------------1902 ----------------------................-----1903 1904 -------------------------------------------1905 1906----------------------1907 -----------------------
3,2.52 702 3, 1,975 2,212
2,004
995 2, 3,172 5, 085 4,004
1908 ------------------------ 671 1909 ----------------------- 3,123 1910 ----------------------- 3,212 1911 ------------------------ 2,072 1912----------------------- 2,380 1913----------------------- 3,477 1914------------------------- 3,095 1915------------------------ 1,222 1910 ------------------------ 1,059
mm-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GBORlA

TABLE
15
X.-Labor employed in the different mining .fida and their production in 1918 Villages Laborers employed In Jnfng and auxJilary transport
84
319 20
Total Ttl
Production Pouto
Rganl ..................................... 140

ZedaRga ................................220 Tabagreb, ................................. 21
23
22, I
247
764 68
Tomu
40
66,1
IOUA 33,1
SarkveletUban ........................... t 101

Mgvimevi ................................. 711 Darkveti................................... ISO Pereviss .................................. 120
37
147
874 98 1419
613 so 40
2,198 3M $39
372,790 97,613 1014 on
Shucruti ...................................176 Itkbvlsl ................................ I1 Total ................................ 1,680
170 18 1,797
129 19 1, 153
475 48 4,630
97,76 9,113 9K46
TABLE Xl.-Wages paid to laborers in the mines

1908 Shovelers .................... do 1910 1913
Miners............................ per day..J 3s. 10d ............ 6d........................ 2s. 3s. Td.
........................................ s. 2d. 8d.
Barrow men ...................do... 3s. 2d.............. 8d.to 2s. Id .............. is. 3s. Sorters ............................. 2s.6d .......... Is. Id. to Is. 8d............. do . 2s. 6d.
Taskwork ....................
per ton.................----2s. to 2s. 8d..........29.
TABLE XII.-Acidents in the mines

Number of Percentage I miners In-I miners in- of miners lured l per I
lured injured
Number of
prod-iction
Year
ye Year
Number of Percentage miners Iminers In- of miners lured per

inJured
Numberof
16,000 tons
16,000 tons IJured
production
L7 2 .$ 4.
1905 .......... Iwoo ........... .......... ! 1907
39 3 53
1 1.I[ 08 1.07
L9 108 ...... 1.1 !1910....... 1.3 909 ............ .
12 10 164
1.79 3O S.61 Mto
EXPORT TRADE
The consumption of Georgian manganese in Russia itself forms only a small percentage of the trade. It started with about 10,000 tons in 1894, which rose to about 30,000 tons in 1898, and has since that time fluctuated between this figure and double its quantity, as shown in Table XVII hereafter. All this ore is used in the Donetz Basin, which, besides, consumes about 80 per cent of the ore extracted at Nikopol, Province of Ekaterinoslav. The Georgian exporters do not scent to pay much attention to this trade, and, for instance, in 1906, when the demand from abroad was very pressing several Russian steelworks could not get any supplien at all from Tehiaturi, and had to send special people there to buy from stocks, which were then forwarded with great difficulty. The steelworks in the Urals use local inanganiferous iron ores. stay, and, in spite of the serious competition which arose in the course of time, andsometimes overwhelmed it, Georgia had before the war regained her position as the largest producer of manganese ore of the world. Internal difficulties had much to do with the temporary setbacks of the trade. The question o( transport and exorbitant railway charges by the Government, as set out in a previous chapter, gave rise to continuous complaints, and on the other hand fierce competition between the producers themselves and the entire absence, until more recent years, of any coordination in the export trade, made
From the beginning of the manganese industry the export trado was its main-
the business often enough a profitless tindertaking for the miners.

96153-2G---10
Much blame,
"I
NATIONAL
EPUBLIO OF'GMORIA
for this unsatisfactory state of things had at one time to be attached to some Greek exporters, who, being foreign to the interests of the country, tried to prevent the producers from combining and kept the prices in a most unsettled condition. - The United Kingdom was the first importer of Georgian manganese on a large scale, taking about 40 per cent of the whole quantity exported between 1885 and 1898 when in the latter year Germany took the lead in the purchases. Prices during that period were generally not very satisfactory for the producers, and more than once did not cover their cost, although there was then only competition from Chile. In 1898 a more successful period began, the demand for the European and American markets being brisk and at remunerative prices, which continued until 1900, when the export figures reached a record. But in the following year tLey took an unfavorable turn In consequence of the depression of the foreign markets, which continued for several years. In 1903 the Government was, therefore, again approached for help in view of the critic l position of the trade. Fortunately at the end of 1904 a brisk demand set in again; prices soared up to 3is. and even 36s. per ton of 50 per cent ore f. o. b. Poti, while, for instance, in 1897 only 24s. had been paid. The strikes of 1905 scarcely interrupted this prosperity, and in 1906 prices stood even at from 44s. to 46. 6d. per ton f. o. b. Poto--the highest figures obtained since the railway existed. But this unprecedented activity suddenly collapsed in the middle of 1907. The foreign demand fell off, and at the end of the year shipments had practically ceased. This stagnation continued until 1910, when the consumption rose again, even to record figures. But the Indian and Brazilian competition covered most of it, and the Georgian miners only obtained very low prices, which scarcely allowed them to make any profit at all. This was largely due to the unusually high sea freights, and lasted until the end of 1911, when the demands of the ferromanganese works suddenly arrived again and caused prices to rise. This favorable position was cxpectcd to continue, although the high rates of wages imposed by the strikes of the miners made things very difficult for the less favorably placed mines, but the war and the closing of the Dardanelles made an end to the prospects as well as to the difficulties. The ups and down of the export trade are reflected in the stocks of ore lying at Tchiaturi. While at the end of 1902 they amounted to 240,000 tons, they rose to 323,000 tons in 1903 and 1904; to 1,130,000 tons in 1906, being over 1,000,000 in 1907. The heavy shipments of 1912 reduced them to 645,000 tons, and in the following year even to about 400,000 tons. In 1914 the output of the mines fully covered the quantities shipped, and at the end of the year were rather higher than a year before. The average cost of this ore deposited at the railway platforms at Tchiaturi is approximately as follows: a. d. per ton.- 4 0 Extraction and dressing ---------------------------------4 do ..--Administration -------------------------------------------3 4 do ..--Transport to station ---------------------------------------Total ----------------------------------------------do..--7 8 The item of transport varies, of course, considerably according to the distance of the mines from the railhead and their facilities and means of transport. To the Pbove cost must be added Is. 4d. per ton for rent to the owner, if the ore-bearing land is held on lease. The values of the ore per ton at Tehiatiri platforms fluctuated between the the following limits during recent years: 1908: 1009: 1910: 1911: 6s. 6s. 6s. 6s. to 9s. 4d. 8d. to 9s. 4d. to 8s. to 7s. 4d. 1912: 6s. to 8s. 8d. 1913: 8s. to 10s. 8d. 1916: January to March, 1s. 8d. to 12s. 8d.; December,'26s. 8d. to 29s. 4d.
The selling price of manganese ore for metallurgical purposes is fixed according to its tenor in metallic manganese, In silica and phosphorus; the latter two elements being detrimental must not exceed a certain:maximum. For instance,
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OP GEORGIA
137
the American steel works made their contracts for Georgian ore before the war at a fixed and progressive price per unit of metallic manganese, and on that the ore should not contain more than 8 per cent of silica, nor more condition than per cent of phosphorus. In case of an excess the following penalties 0.25 were stipulated: For each I per cent in excess of 8 per cent of silica 15 cents (7%d.) per ton were deducted, and for each 0.02 per cent, or fraction thereof, in excess of per cent of phosphorus a deduction of 2 cents (id.) per unit of manganese 0.25 and per ton was made. Ore containing less than 40 per cent of metallic or more than 12 per cent silica, or 0.27 pet cent of phosphorus couldmanganese be refused by the buyers. Analyses to be made on samples dried at 2120 F., and all moisture found in the samples as taken to be deducted from the weight. For ore L'ought f. o. b. Poti the following, or approximate, conditions are usually adopted in British sale contracts: 1. The sellers will sell and undertake to deliver to the buyers who accept tons or 10 per cent more or less of merchantable Caucasian manganese ore of 48 per cent average tenor, to be delivered at the rate of about per month. 2. The price of this ore shall be - kopelkper pood of ore dry weight delivered f. o. b. steamer in Poti in bulk. 3. The ore shall contain 48 per cent. of metallic manganese 2120 F., and any shipment containing less than 46 per cent can when dried at be refused by purchasers, other tenors to be paid for proportionately. The normal silica shall be 10 per cent. with a scale of 3d. per unit and per ton above tenor of and below this tenor, the maximum allowed being 11 per cent. The maximum phosphorus shall be 0.18 per cent. All moisture shall be deducted from tenor of weight. 4. The buyers have to provide the steamers for transport to inform the sellers of the probable arrival of the same at leastof the ore and have The sellers do not guarantee the turn of loading in the port. 15 days in advance. The sellers undertake to load at the rate of ,100 tons per working-day, counting from the day of arrival of the steamer at the quay. 5. Sampling and weighing of the ore have to be effected at the port of discharge by/ the agents of the buyers and the sellers jointly, according to the and the samples have to be analyzed by the respective analysts of usual rules the parties anti at their cost. The average results of the two analyses shall Ie taken as basis for the invoice, except If there is a difference of more than tenors of manganese, in which ease a third analysis shall be made 1 per cent in the by ..... shall be used for the invoice and paid for by the party whose first result which difiered most from the umpire's. 6. The buyers shall pay in cash 80 per cent of the provisional invoice against the bill of lading in Poti, and shall to this effect open a confirmed batik credit with a bank in Poti of a sufficient amount and before the arrival of the steamers at that port. The provisional invoice shall be based upon the weight mentioned in the bill of lading, a supposed tenor of 48 per cent of metallic manganese and 10 per cent moisture. The balance of the shipment according to the invoice has to be settled in cash not later than 14 days front the reception final shipment and by check sent to the ---- Bank for account of the sellers. of the Each shipment is to be deemed and treated as a separate contract. 7. In case of strikes, blockades, breakdown of railway, interdict of shipping port, prohibition of export, quarantines, war, act of God, or any other unforeseen event whatever beyond the control of the sellers making it impossible to ship the ore, the deliveries and shipments shall be suspended until the cessation or removal of these obstacles, or for a period to be fixed, and the be responsible for any damage or otherwise resulting from such sellers shall not causej, 8. The execution of the present contract is by the ------ Bank in London, the sellers guaranteed on behalf of the sellers being responsible for any actual .damage or loss sustained by the buyers through nondelivery of the ore unless it is caused by an event or events mentioned in clause 7. 9. Any dispute concerning the execution or interpretation of the present contract shall be submitted to two arbitrators to be chosen by the parties, in case of their disagreement they will choose an umpire wlose decision and shall be final.
138
metal.
lie-1 Yerm e Mols--
NATIONAL REPUBUC OF OEORECA TAIBzZ XHII.-Typical analyses of cargoes

Mehl2. i Analysts Year
1nalys Ale1ysts
Ols-
Silica
Pe" cePer Cent Per
1910
1910 1910 1910 1910 1910
5100
50.07
9.1659.265 Pattlason.
Do.
Watson & Gray. 1911 50.A2 & 54 1........

1911 51.24 1911 49. M 1912 49.94 1912 1912 49.98 50.6
Per cen Per cene Per etat 680 9.00 9. 9 9 F. 92 9.30
1910 5026
0.45 50.2
9.82 ........Watson & Gmy. 49.85 10.08 ........Fresenius. Do. 10.13 48.83
1O. 50
.25 1Q &7 7.40 7.34 .95
1912 50.64 1
1912 1913 1913 1913 50.83 4.94 50.30 50.34
1911 49.94 8
1911 51.50 1911 ,o0.O0 1911 50,39 1911 49.31
........ Waton & Gray. 1 .

8.29 , Pattinson. 9.32 Do. .. Watson & Gray. 10.425t Pearson.
9.464 M22-
Do. P1ar2on.
1912 50.37 9.464 ..
10.36 ........ 7.69 . 8.961 ....... 9.99 ....... 10.34 8.36 .. "..
I........ "54
Freseus. Pattlson. Watson & Gray
Do.
Do. Do.
Do.
Do. Do. Do. Do.
The selling price of the manganese ore depends, as mentioned, on its tenor In metallic manganese, and the quotations are noted per unit or percentage of such metal. For instance, an ore containing 50 per cent of manganese metal at 10d. per unit is worth 41s. 8d. per ton, lems the eventual deductions stipulated in the contract, as outlined above. The following figures give the highest and lowest prices per unit quoted in London in recent years for 50 per cent Indian ore, in pence:
1899: 10 to 12 d. 1900: 12 to 13d. 1901: 9 to 1l d. 1910: 9% to 8%d. 1911: 82 to 10d. 1912: 9 to 13Y d. 1913: 13 to 93jd. 1914: 94 to 11 d. 1915: 16 to 18d. 1916: 30 to 32d. 1917: April, 36d.; July, 38 to 39d; 0o tober, 40d.; December 41 rd. 1918: January, 42d.
1902: 8% to 9d.
1903: 8 to
F
1904: 7% to 8d. 1905: 9 to 10%d. 1906:13 to 17d. 1907: 17 to 10d. 1908: 9Y2 to 8d. 1909: 9 to 9 d.
d.
Georgian ore, with its somewhat lower tenor of from 47 to 50 per cent, is paid from d .- 2d. less per unit, while the Brazilian ore is still less esteemed. For inistance, in the summer of 1913 Indian ore was quoted lid. to I I %d., Georgian 9d. to 9%d., and Brazilian 6%d. to 7 d. The war, of course, upset all these values, and while, for instance, Brazilian ore cost 9d. per unit c.i.f. U.S.A. in the beginning of 1914, it had to be paid 2s. 4d. per unit in 1915, and up to 4s. in May, 1917. A detailed picture of the Georgian export trade in manganese ore is given by the following Tables Nos. XIV to XVIII.
TABLE XIV.-Exporl.s of manganese ore from Poti and Batum according to British
consular reports
From Poti
Year
---
From D tum Ton
Total Tons Value
Tons
value
Value
'Pondq 18.......................... ............ 188 ........................... 73 110.133 2887 ........................... 19,519 10t. 701 188 ........................... 3.%.30 1 .,60 lw ......................... . 49.1061 90, 1690 ......................... 12(4 0M 24A .OC 1891 .......................... l0)16195000 1892 ........................... 1250 31,2= 1893 ....................... 12, 692 24. 336 18W ...................... 141,310 2.620 15 ........................... 159,6m3 :19.,272 189........................... 133,36-5 20,730 1897 ........................ 1%04(01 210,002
Pou nd8 Pounds 27.000 10000 27,000 41. 7 ......... 52,000 M000 &L3.750 1C0,133 11.60) 29,000 - 61,119 135.700 7.118 19.7589 4Z 984 100,389 38,730 60 .M 11,492 119,576 33,897 11,299 131,299 273,897 5.222 14,570 &% 238 209,570 7.730 14. 795 13A230 3A6,045 7.10 18. 167 130. fO 263,525 151,301 304,5.59 6, 91 4.324 0702 1013 96 325,974 4.27Z 137, 3 273,779 7,049 . 157 8.501 171,957 218,506 1X.000 18,.702 15.077
1_
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GWOROGA U autX XIV.-Eports of manganese ore from Poti ad Batm British consular reports-Continued
From Po
139
acoording fo
Total Tons
274,011
Year
From Batum [ Tons 11,7861 106040 5Z.917 Value 19328 is. 6W 79,36
Tons 243
Valt
44M
Value
860 22
188 ........................... 26325
1aW........................333,
1900........................... 373,262 1101 ........................... 23,%3 1W ........................... 37,100 19 ........................... 38, 930 1904........ .............. 425,714 190 ..................... 297,025 M......................... 478,000 1907 .......................... 475,M terW ........................... 3%, 0D 191M ....................... 1910 ............ 1911........................ 1912 ................. 63 .
492, 387 32,963 483, 875 43, 557 527, 141 371,281 9A.5000 9 4A 2 250O .. .. .. ..
440, 0
363,285
45%,906.
443,40.......... 34 *............ 4,"8 ....

634,900.........
1913.............. 1915' ......... 1916'
...
780.........
18,000 91,321 59,927 27,395 18,070 1fW6 5%0759 .......... 2,150 ............ 8,160 ............ 374,760............ 238, 8............ 572,238 ............ 43,119 ............ 407,619............ 129,233 ............ 571,693 ............ 277,499 ...........911699 ............ 429,900 ........... 1,079,680 ............ 372,198 ............ 214 ............ 787,
8,750 ............
426.179 77 :101:73 279,963 1 900 597,113 478, 421 i13,238 75,031 440,857 54(5W 43, 100 8,054 31,813 19,927 39108 313,09 ............ 494,506............
..................................
1917' . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .
1918' ...................
'6 months.
TABLE
f....
.. ................... 9,769......... I . .... . ... ,oo........ ---- __------ ........... ............ ' No exports because of closing of the Dardanelles.
3 roll and Batum together.
XV.-Porls of destination of ore shipments and quantities, in tons

19
1901
1902
41,478 11,540
1903
39,730 14,940
1.Middlesboro....................... 43,241 2. Garston ................................. 1,978
3. Fleetwood .........................
40,407
53,1241 28,932 18,051 7,950 3897' 17,639
49,210 9,210
,806
4. Newport ............................... 12,257 11,.32 1,921 20,1'3 7,000 S. Liverpool ..............................75 197 .. . .1,.0 1,200 6. Plymouth .........................................................
7. Mostyn ................................ ,768 ............ 3,050 10. Birkenhead .....................
8. Glasgow ........................................................ 9. hull ...........................
1. ,4
14. Marport ....................... ......-................. ............ 15. London ...................................... 26. Rotterdam ............................. 146. 4 i4 9731 119,0 47 134,541 17. Amsterdam ............................. 2.0,0 .............. 4 .1 18.Antwerp ...............................90! 47,432 I 37,739 71,44, 85,604 19. lamburg.............................. 62,11 10,777 12,390 15,4971 12,788 20. Stettin ......................... .. 714 ........... 3oo 01 200 14,00 2 . Em de ........ n ....... ..... ...... ..... . ..... .. .. -------22. Mars lle................ , , 4,114 23. D~unkirk .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... ... 18610 ....... 6,282 24. Boulogne .................................. ... .......
11. Barrow .............. ... I......... 12. Gibraltar .............. .... ...................................... 13. Manchester ................... .... ...... ............................
24. ul g Ba ..............................
I ... ',' . 8. ............ ............ 28. Bayonne ..................................................... ....... Xiso 29. PautlIac' ... . .. . .. . . . . . . .:.. . . . . . . . . . .. 30. Triese ..................................... 2,200 I... ...... I 9I460'.I2,700 ")70 . . . . . . 3,607
27. St. Nazaire........................................ 31. Fiume
25. are ...............................
.................
91 2---634 '
12,865 24,739
................ ......................... "..... ...... 32. Srsoi............................................ 0 ............ ., 17,645 33. Pola ....................................................... t .......... . 34. Livorno. .......................... . ..................... ......... ............ 33. Fimn ........................................................ ............ 38. Pombio ................................. ............. I I .......... - 4. Nolon ..... ol......................... ............ ............ ... :--3B. Li eo. ................................... . ......... . ............ ................... ............ . ....... 31. N ates ................................. ........ ..... . .. ..... . .. . 3. Syrd n .............................. ............ ....................... 7...... 4 3. olantea ........................... ........... ............ ........... .
ork.................. 45. New ..
44. altimore .............................. 22 , 47,
I ............ I
1~
64,324 424 770
33,62 304.i..
3,141 t 443,370,
3,910 41,443
3.56
14U
T'rLa
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GEORGIA XV.-Ports of destinationof ore shipments and quantities,in toa-Continued
10 1904 in 19wW
190o
42,352 22,002 11,301 16,6001 1. Middlesboro ......................... 640 10, 20 27,43 12,00 15,80 2. Oerston ............................. 12, " 9WO 9, 2,5W 13,451 32.004 3. Fketwood ............................ 13,100 ......... 5,750 22,997: 4.-Newport ............................... 15.90 9, 919 33,545 10,098 2,478 4,400 , * 6.Liverpool .............................. . ...... ...... ....... ....... .. . Plymouth ................................ 7,480 7. Mostyn ................................ 1 ................................. .................. 8.Glasgow .............. ...................... ........................5.00. .................. 9. ......... 3,50....... 6,50 10. Birkenhead ................................. 9000 ........ It. Barrow ...................................................... 4, 45W 3,200 1. Gibraltar ...................................... .. ............ 3,5 ............ 9,902 .................... ........................ 13. Manchester ..... 13, 31,000 29,167 .......................................... .. 14. Mary port S ............................................. 15. Lendon ....................................... 157, 206,196 212,307 122,279 164,762, 18. Rotterdam ....................... ............................................. 17. Amsterdam ......................... 54. 6,787 4o 33,515 83,21 18. Antwerp ............................... 35, &58 iI, 15,407 14,016 14,614 --....................... 12,572 19. Hamburg ...... 4, 12,450 21,950 20. Stettin ................................. 6,00 ........... 3,010.................................. 21. Emden .......................... . 8, 7.098 9, 3 3 547 13,164 22. Marselle ............................. 2 900. . ODD 2,709 21,715 23.Pankirk ............................... 23, 14,C00 2,600 24. Boulogne ..................................................... ......... ............460....... Ilavre .................................... 25. 9,80 26. Calb ................................. 10,673'. .................. . .. ...... ...... ... ...... ....... . . ..... ire ......... 2 7. S t . N a .a ... 28. Pauillac ............................... 7, 10 70 2, 29. Bayonne .............................. ...... 37,W06 30. Triee ................................. . 6. ........ . ....... 1 ....... .... i- 31. Flum e --------------------------------- - -7 ........ 32. ol.............................. 33. Pola, 10 .................... 84. Leno .................................... !......... Plomblno ........................................... ............ W8. " .. .... ..................... ..... 37. Bologa.......................... 38. Nape 39. yra .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .3323.................. ............................... 40. Consantople 41, Galati .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 42. Philadel 5,3M'-................ 15,750 8,20 ........................ 43. Sydney..:.............. 8,430................ 8,809 5,5 f Baltimore .............................. 44. ........ 3,7491........................ 45. New York ............................. 388, 462 377,771 431,123 301,613 3"4 4*,
1909
1910
78,757 19,206 ,5, 627 22,120 37,069 1. Mildlesboro --------------------------65,410 35,496 64,703 30,225 21,005 2. Oarston ............................... 13,392 9,819 20, 920 1Z720 3. Fleetwood ............................. 9,450 4,870 4. Newport ............................ 4,59.. 9.00 7,458 5. Ll verpool ............................. 3,134 6. Plymouth.................................-- --------29,732 20 W 28,054 .................. ..... 7. 'ostyn ... 3,600 ............ 8. Glasgow ............................... ......... '.. --................................... 9. ull.. 9'52 ............ ... 10. Birkenbead .......................... ....... o..... 11. Barrow ................................. 8,109 ...... ..'... 12. Gibraltar .............................. --------------------18,002 33, 034 1& Manchester .................................................. 23,007 19,301 2 ,95 26,663 14. Maryport ............................. j ..... 273,65,5 4 583 -----------15. L on don ............................... 248, 578 &%4,634 256, 45 . 744 , ............... ........... 18. Rotterdam i 1,3. ............ ............ ........... ...... .... ...... 17. Amsterdam .................... K, 6M4 6,943 18. Antwerp -----------------------------51,389 44,.330 42, 213 28,795 19,892 19. Hamburg ............................. 20. Stettin ........................................................ .......... 21. Emden .......................... 13,978 1 13234 7.013 2,457 22. Marseille ............................ ' '. 27,678. I ........................ ......................... 23. Dunkirk.- ..... 30410 17,060 24. Boulogne ............................. j 2. Havre ................................. ............ ............
...... ...-.
....... ..
............
... . .. ...... ..........
N4TIOAh REPVBUIO 'OP GEO.RUIA

TABLE, XV.-Porstof destination of ore shipment 1909
141
and quantities, inIons-Continued

1910 1911 1912 1913
26. ... -.. 27. St. Nazatre............................ . .... ...... X 2........ 31 28. Bayonne .......... . ..................................... 29. Paullac.... ............................ ... 221............ ... 30. rt' 5"..., 7..3 290M 24,728 ..2 .7
31. Flume .............................
32. Servoli ......................
33. rola .......................................................

34. Llvorno ............................. 10........................
......
18,703
47..............
18,100
11,405
3.60
14,47
2891
1'O
12 35. Genoa ................................. 39. Syra ...............................
............ ........ 2.770 .......4,502
757
814............ ............
............ ............ 23 8 5,238.............
30. Plomblno ................................... 2,400 3,101 .... I 37. Bologna ................................................ ............... 38. Maple .........................................................
...........
40. Constantinople..................................... 43. Phliladelphia .......................... 4,250
.......................:. ............ 41. Slatz .............................. 42. Sydney...................... ............... ............. .......... .. ...... ... 44. Baltimore............................ 12,100
45. New York ...... T__
_
18, 06
W9347
10,64
s1,150
88,011
.000 6
108,484
,M
..........................................
_es
l.-_ou
of destinai639,1IM
88,655
1,061,772
TABLE,
XV!.-Countries of destination of ore shipments and quantities, in tons

Belgium
Great Britain
lolland
124,975 148,706 119,350 153,976 134,581 164.762 122,279 212307 206,102 157,051
Germany I France ;
14,32 10,777 15,690 26.697 20.288 37,532 21,214 14,016 27,857 15.597 19.892 28o795 42, 213 44, 329 51.389 398,811 South Russia
42,579 I 38.110 44.974 69, -I0' 48,.59 75,333 44,620 67,198 63,04 9.653
132,430 7,900 199..........:............................ 47,422 116.831 1900 ....................................... 77,992 37, 729 1901 ........... oo...o............ 133,11 1 71,409 1902o...................................... 85, 04 113.121 * 19 .................................. 83,622 99,331 190 ............... ............. 71,232 35, 3. 1105............. ............... 125.423 I 33,515 190................ ................ 6,788 171,597 1907 ................................... S 64,933 111,714 1908 ......... .................... I 142,339 65, 943 1909 ....................................... 83,65 137,844 1910 ....................................... 124,023 &S, 198 1911 ....................................... 198, 914 190,701 1912 ....................................... 180,050 243,405 1913.................................
i
250,744
26655 248,578 273,655 354,634
7.086 18.610 10.,39 37,423 4, 344 44.685 13.944 17,401 24.59 29,690 19. 517 88.024 41.394 41.651 54,324 446,134 Grand total 409,085
349, 172 502,870 483, 107 35,727 348.233 498 321 540.817
1M9993071
2,929,235
United States
1890..................................
Other Total countries j-aroad
3,506 79,790 ............ 75,824 1900 ............ .................. 6,600 421,770 1901 ....................................... 9,460 33,582 304,198 13,807 443,370 1902 .......... .................... 6.797 1903............................... 22,99 434,448 5,535 1904 ............................ 12,613 480,394 17. 889 1905 ............................ 12,983 I 301,613 13, 730 1906 .......... ............. .... 14,681 431,123 1907.................................... 40,831 477.771 18,577 38, 462 1W8 ............................ 1 ........ oo........................... 28,650 59,185 o 1910 .......................................37,050 609,347 22,325 1911 .......................................43,907 15,837 581,150 1912 ....................................... 94,913 39.4W 88.3.655 1913 ...................................... 3,335 135,635 1,051,772
26.782
39%.115
29938 23,883 16, 8
65,947 639.285 900. 6"4 1,081,731
W05%013
9.959 601,093
I38, 5201
334,041
7,897,764
8, 29%85
It must be pointed ( t that all the manganese ore shipped to Holland is destined for Germany.
142
NATIONAL BUDLIO OF OMMIA TADLZ XVII.-Wofd (MP ON, o mdneOang in tons
Great Britin ............................. a
u' ."..."................
.........................
15,,927
1A4
257,680
I s
26&,767
526
19%6064
6,2
231,8
2345e7
29
10,243
12
94,366
19(6
1904
1905
1906
1907
Gret B
Ge
x.r ";""..":''"".'G."
r
rita............n...
m
any..................
231.80
its
947,8o
208, 73
253700
223,708
287o0
o0o5 601,,89
338,42
131.133
282,311 I
3032
608,35
193, 120,000 023 ,5
,K
.................................... Gast (Ura ).............................
7. 000 180, 000 24,

881,287
150000 78,332
884,728
139,764 | 127,015 150,000 |147000 44,0 20

1,107,428
67,198
2,247,210
1,012,50
AMISria......................2, ta................ i Germany .................................. United state ............................. A ................................... eu--.............................

Orast Br
ON 334,133 181,054 16, 10, 000 , '.12 In.too
344,170 I330,690
44,970 384,445 1,10 ,14 176,610
44,,251 4,870 24,226 1822 04,033
482,209 [538,915
02,082 7,790 387,733 420,709 53^3125 200, o 300o601 9 63 i 4,48 249,2t 395,63O
Rusa (Ur27a) .......................... It .......................................... iy T___________ l__.__ Wo__d
76,26 482937I 23,821 3,915 209...5 7,No of0 226 1,502,433
3 1,8
T~~~iu XVII1,rl ~ ~
co2up4o of2nans 8105
r,
,574,295
ntn
1I98 154,346 Oret Britain ............................
1899
1900 267.105 262.436 321,(20 191.020 149,7S2 30.283 6.014 2,6M0 126 946 1, 354,&. 5C(
1001 193,300 277,874 2%,847 131,510 116, 69 24,406 2,181 2,276 !15,031 1,161,094 1906
1002 234,611 21.33 390,568 174,440 ,8,165 22,405 2,477 2, 850 119,245 1, 30,09 19,07 52 733 1, 461,620 457, 58 120,120 305,482 83,258 3,65%4 362 240,050 2,10q6,676
2-8, 91? 28. 1%4 ................ 173, W54 Germsny ........ 232,701 1, ............................. 10 United states 162,120) 140,41 Belgium................ 132,178 146,527 ralce ................ ........... 21,504 24, Austria ................................. 83 4,356 3.002 taly................................. 2,622 2,358 90,A4~ 139,591 . , 1903 1, 2 26,7 1
1 0I.1.
Z;2. ...... ........................ (,A2 Great Britain
10,,50V4 Oeman................................... Oclelg S ................................ 253,335 .............................. United 10',000 1.m ........ ................ Une Z3,027 AustrLa............................... 1,6630 Italy ........................... 2.244 Swei .............................
RnUsst....oo.......................... o
21:, 01 02, 3(9 208,459 156,100 W'80,000 30,(00 436 22 IM Z -188,12 1,111,060 .
2.3, 174 n"09, &,8 357,033 165,0(00 146,018 35,50 5,339 2 0 1 02 !, ,4% 9
1, 084, M
3C,1,549 3S1olOS 391, 31 162,000 135, 0O 35,734 3,000 2, 148,43 1,031,537
WATIO AL
oPUSLIC OF GEORGIA
14j
111
383,902 40391 870,000
TAwLx XVIII.-World mownmpt"os of waganeeo ore, hk ton--Continued
1908
Oreat Britain ..............................
1909
M33502 4565,99 381,160 185.040 0 67,910
4,712 5,212 29,890 82,88
1010
487,678 5,1919 396,226
1912 391.908
O05,482
Germany..................................
Bel
United 8tates ..............................
France .....................................
................................... luu
30 478 2042 I, 298

107,130
Italy ....................................... Swedw .................................... Russia .....................................
Attrla....................................
18.369 52,576
2,750 4.616 143,578
197.570 79.380
8,115 2,771 133,60
996033
183,258
49, 661 231,2 78 615
242,496 97.756
359,430 261 1,120 17%367
10.725 4,448 20k 729
1.5,83a
,m27.830 330 1,VA
2,049,7086
2,387,S
FOREIGN COMPETITION WITH GEORGIAN MANGANESE
Of the various countries producing manganese ore only India and Brazil have to be considered as serious competitors with Georgia for the world's supply of this ore. Chile which in the beginning of the Georgian trade ran it rather closely fell out of it altogether In the first years of this century, principally on account of the very onerous sea freights; and, besides, the exports from thacountry never reached 50,000 tons in their best years. Brazil is a more serious competitor. Its principal manganese mining fields are situated in the Provinc- of Minas Geraes, in the districts of Miguel Burnier and Queluz, about 300 miles northwest of Rio de Janeiro, which is the shipping port for all the ore from this region. The ore is usually pyrolusite, also manganite of good quality, containing an average of from 48 to 52 per cent of manganese metal, 3 per cent iron, 1 per cent silica, and very little phosphorus-in many cases only from 0.03 to 0.09 per cent; but its drawback is its great hardness, which makes it difficult to fuse and accounts for its usually lower value than the Georgian and Indian products. The district of Queluz contains the Morro de Mina deposit, which is estimated to contain an ore reserve of 10,000,000 tons and produced 200,000 tons in 1915. It is worked by Brazilian owners, while other mines belong to ielgian and other companies. The arrangements for the export of the ore are fairly satisfactory, and the trade is generally prosperous. In 1914 the mining costs amounted to 2s. 041. per ton, railway freight to Rio and export duty to 6s., sea freight from Rio to United States of America to 20s., making total cost of about 28s. 6d. per ton e. i. f. United States of Amer-ca. The American steel works are now the largest buyers of this ore; in 1914, 40 per cent of their imports came from this source, and in 1915 even 90 per cent despite the difficulties of freight. During the first 11 months of 1910 the total imports of the United States amounted to 526,525 tons, about 95 per cent of which came from Brazil. The country contains yet other deposits of manganese ore in the Provinces of Bahia and Matto Grosso. One of them is in exploitation in the former district and cost of mining, transport, export duty, and loading on steamers in the port of Bahia amount there to 11s. 3d. per ton. But probably the largest deposit in the world known at present occurs in Matto Grosso, near Corumba. It has the shape of a steep mountain, consisting of iron ore interstratified by several enormous horizontal manganese veins of pure quality and sufficient for the world's .requirements for several centuries. But the place is difficult of access, and so far from the sea or a railway that this occurrence will not have any influence on the world's trade as long as other deposits can give any supply. The most serious competition against which the Georgian ore has to contend comes from India. The good quality of its ores, combined with cheap labor and railway freights, have often brought the markets rrice down to a level which proved ruinous to the Georgian producers, and during the years 1910 and 1911 the Indian production even exceeded that of the Georgian mines, which formerly had always kept the first place. The mining of Indian manganese began in 1892 near Vizagapatam, in theMadras Presidency; but in 1900 the central Provinces also started exploitations and now supply the bulk of the exports. The greater part of the ore found is not
NATIOTA]r
B 3UUUO ,07 .OWAOIA
pyroluuite as In Geor but pallomelane -andbraunite--lt Is hard and compact, easily broken, but without forming dust, which Is an advantage in the handling and transport. The ore is mostly extracted by open-out methods with coolie labor, but later co boubt, deep mining will have to be resorted to. The deposits are scattered qver wide areas and their depths have not yet been ascertained, so that no estimate on be formed of the scaliable ore; but the reserves are not inexhaustible. At present larpe quantitiee of ore are lost and thrown upon the dumps because proper concentration plants do not.exist and it does not pay to ship the low-grade ore. ' The cost of mining varies between ?a. 9d. and Bs. Od. per ton; the railway charges to Vizagapatam (55 miles) are about 2s. per ton; to Bombay (500 miles) f. 6d. per ton, and to Calcutta (700 miles) 13s. per ton. The sea freight from India to Europe and the United States of America varies In normal times between I&e. and 18s. per ton, or about s. more than from the Black Sea; but as the railway charges are low, although the distances are four or six times longer than in the Caucasus, the cost price compares favorably with the Georgian and Brazilian ores. Besides, as the assays usually give higher averages of metal, the basis prices for Indian ore have in recent years always been about Id. or 2d. higher per unit than' those for ore from other sources. Nevertheless, the shipments generally tend to show an increasing percentage of phosphorus, which now averages 0.15 and even more per cent, as the high-grade ores, which were exclusively worked in the beginning are becoming scarce, and the preferential price may therefore in time disappear. A typical complete analysis of a sample of Indian ore gave the following results (by Pattinseon & Stead): Per cent Dried at 2120 F.: Peroxide of manganese ---------------------------------------66. 357 Protoxide of manganese --------------------------------11. 786 Peroxide of iron -----------------.-------------------------2.928 Alumina --------------------------------------------------2. 847 Lime --------------------------------------------------. 975 Magnesia ------------------------------------.036 Silica ----------------------------------------------------8. 100 Potash -----------------------------------------------------. 770 Soda -------------------------------------------------------. 610 Baryta ----------------------------------------------------1. 564 Sulphuric acid ----------------------------------------------. 021 Phosphoric acid --------------------------------------------. 375 Oxide of zinc ----------------------------------------------Trace. Oxide of copper ---------------------------------------------Trace. Oxide of nickel and cobalt ------------------------------------Trace. Oxide of lead ----------------------------------------------Nil. Arsenic ----------------------------------------------------. 010 Carbonic acid ------------------------------------------------. 900 Combined water -------------------------------------------2. 675 99. 954 Corresponding with: Manganese metal -------------------------------------------51. 08 Iron metal ..... . . . ..---------------------------------------2. 05 Phosphorus.... . . . ..-----------------------------------------. 164 Moisture ---------------------------------------------------. .35 In order to show the relative position of the three principal producing countries and of the other smaller producers we add Tables XIX to XXIV, which explain themselves. They show, at the same time, that the Georgian manganese industry has kept Its own in spite of the rapacious treatment it had to suffer from the former Russian Government. But if it had been under an orderly administration as the Indian industry enjoys its development would undoubtedly have been much more rapid and rational. Unfortunately, in this as in many other industries the old Russian regime was a great hindrance.
X4WIONAI, REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
145
TABLE
XIX.-Comparaive table of production of the three principal producing countries (in tons)
Georgia
Year
India 86964 127,814 171,804 150297 237, 767 898 332 674,315
162,087 144,007
Brazil
108.244
Year
Georgia
India 642,075 800,907 672,762 423,464 674,315 815,047 82, 898
Brazil 4,3 254,177 173.941 154,88 122, 00 188,330 288, 71 ma, 130
1899........... 651.024 1900................ 389,428 1901 ................ 418,147 102................ 370, 10 ................S 1904........... 326,714 336,71? 1low.......... SOD, 106 ................ 193 107 ............... 858597 112,875 1908...........
.o.. .......
190 ........... 88.817 1910 ............ 545.242 105,710 1911 ............ 461.855 163.000 1912................ W89, 758 1913................ 1651,319 1914 ................ W54,645 28308 652.354 233.960 1915' ............... 201,500 19161 .............. 7,000 236,778 19171 .......... 201,380 18 509 1918'.......... 150,000
i Sharp decrease In production is due to closing of Dardanelles and stoppage of exports. TABLE XX.-'--Comparative table of exports of the three principalproducingcountries
(in tons)
Year
Oeorgis
India 92,000 130,654 133.170 144,037 171,804 154.,%0 282,334 310,446 641,692
Brazil 74,238 93,127 105,710 157,295 161,926 20 224,337 201,50 271,375
Year
Georgia
India
Brazil
1899............. 1 404,410 1900 ............. 462,877 1901 ............. 349,170 1902 ............ .,869 1903 ............. 1904 .............. . ,727t 483,107 105................ 340,233 190 ................ 498,32 1907 ................ 540,817 I Estimated.
1908................ 39A115 509,246 182,50 )VM .... 5........... 467,274 MS.947 240,774 1910................ 639,285 687,327 2.52,.M4 1911 ................ 605,013 553.623 I173941 1912 ................ 1913 ........... :....1,061,731 0,. W 621,826 772,366 122,000 154.870 1914............ .787,214 .......... 183,630 1915................ 9,750 418,7331 26&671 1916 ................ 9,769. 580,328 '350,00
TABLE XXI.-Participaionof Georgia and Ukraine in the world's production of
manganese ore (in percentages)

Consumin$ coun Non Celltries
Year
Oeorgia
Ukra no
Year
tes
UkGeor- * raine gia
Contries 14.13 1 12.72 1 1&72 12.93 13.45 15.92 R&541
NonconCO ifl. tries 40.14 60.46 61.17 51.82 61.74 47.52 36.39
1M .........
30.13 1899...... 42.23 190 ........... 44.33 1901 ............. 80.25 1902 ............. 31.53 1903 ........... 33.39 1904 ........... 29.34 1905 .......... .25.14
7.48 .05 5.74 4.52 3.33 5.65 11.46
6.93
21.91 41.03 13.58 1 34.75 13M 36.02 20.02 43.99 21. 40 4155 1. 37 441.91 18.15 46.86 16.85 46.54
1906 ............. 38.21 7.52 1907 ............. 20.06 10.76 1908.......... 7.62 12.49 1909........... 31.56 3,69 1910 ............. 26.42 8 39 1911 .............29 S13.28 2 12.27 1912 ............. 31.79
148
NATIONAL !IEPUIJLIO OF
ORE(1A
TAzz XXlI.-World prodution of manganee ore (in tons)

188 188
1900
1901
1902
omqat Bitain..............................
UW~ted State2 .............................. mny .................................. 51 A6
421
3,384
44,82
6,81
].3s
&% 38 6....7
m
131,127 61,448
1,4 , 7M
154, 99"7 49,812
e .....".". """......... .............. .... ""1 4

'taoy a* e l7en . 21,486 3,002 4.3M 14&OM 84,350 9,906 Aow4
86
18,776 4,388 2,62 138419 272 11,447
3,
22949 8, 484 2,68 131, 20 2 1,028 1F 08,4
2%30
18,438 2181 271 112,879 1162,07 1,216 A15, 1
1% 6
21.408 2,477 88 46089 144,087 1400 0
Ini ................................. J a p a n Brazi .................................... .....................................
loft ...................................... r u. Cuba Ch ...................................... il.............

cub Colombia .................................. ' eountrfes ...........................
64,8-5 27,441 ............. 20,837

11,176 8,20
.
41 $7 1Z 74,238 I 001 40.,930 8000 10,160 8,306 I
12o14 I0M244 2,621 25,713

20, 582 8,610
12,57 1M710 " 7 l 31,477

28,183 700 2,3451
14.o
2,109
183000 3~ o 3,0 2 39,522 1,000
2f%000
Go rgia .......................... ................................... .
6643 84418 K 4 23
72K,802 781,8381 65 10
5
782,413 418,147 59,747
Total ...............................
__ _ _ _ _ _
876,92 1,30068641 146k 512 1,221,3231 1808 1904

,065
1,260 307
7
189,267 74,683 i8, 200
0sM 1906
100,000 I
Oral ta,.............................. 7M n 813 8, United States . ...................... IM,279 100,000

oermany................................. Belgium
Austria frtace ................................. I 4794 2320 .............................
..........................
16,0 10,000 1,930
51,43 15,000
2,%500
14.474 170,621 212 A

52,495 11,180 21,053
18,098
2,100 3,684
10,000
6,o100 2.8W
11,254,
Sweden .................................... 2,244 Spain ...................................... 26299 rtee .................................... ortet .................................. Turkey .... ......................... 49,100 India .............................. 171,804 Japan. .......................... 18,300 Brazil .............................. 163,319
Italy..........-......-......
-.........
20,000
1%000
3,O060
Che............
.............
......
2,297 2,580 Z ,680, 18,732 26,020 62,822 1,8,51 ............ &000 10340 , 000 6,80 / 10,40 50,000 28,600 30,00, 150,297 253,896, 49,729 18,000 15,000 1 11,000 208,260 233,9M01 201 ,00
5, 384
23,756 334 41,04
Cuba ............................ Colombia ..................
........... 1
13,997 . . .
11,140 14,000 88,333 10,410 "2A 778 .,1i
2,492
Other countries ........................ 20,000 702.282
.. 21,070 . ............
32,28 10,000 2 723.842
24,000 J 10,00 I.
,
1,606,990
no55,196 so
Georgia....................................440,857 326,714 Ukraine ......................... ........ 37,400 . 62,792
848,841 1,163,293 , 336,717 809,193

153,524 169,327
Tot
................................1,113,38 I1,8O, 53
1, , 082
12,131,813
2,537,40
11908190919101911
Great Britain ............................... United States.............................. 156,242 Germany ............................ 67,241 812 5%467 4,967 100000 150,000 I 170,000 76,741 80,325 87,297 9,375 7,925 8,000 6,270 ,000 4,000 23,737 19,694 19,.54 4,700 4,2001 3,315 5,212 5,752 5,377 14,500 8,607 33,266 5,374.......................
1912
France ................................... ,1800 Belgium ............................. , 7,130 Austria ....................................'. 23, Italy ................................ 2,750 Sweden. ............................. 4,616 Spain ...................................... 16,945 I Portugal ........................ 802 ............................... (Crecce arkey........................ 2........ 14,349 I India. ............................. 674,315 Japan ............................... 4,348 Brai.. ............................... 12,509 Cuba 1492 Other countries........................ 1,400 1, 16R,2-3 Georgi ..................................... 112,177 Ukraine ................................... 184,117
198,000 92,474 10,000 3.000 17,067 2,641 5,100 29,761 10,000
4, 170
7.700 ii'01 ...... ....

642,675 6p ,660 210.774 2,976 . 610 1,150,016 558,806 6S 341 800,907 5,496 254,177 1.. 0 673,762 ,000 173,941
P" iSS'
423,464 8,632 151,70 .... i6,664 15000 20,0 994,779 56 79,753 237,978
1,3G0,750 1 1,205,906W 545,241 461,.4 173,195 3 3,057
Total........................1,494,547 1,774,2631
079,1861 1,908171
1,792,815
NATIONAL RRPUBIJC OF GEOROIA

tries (in percentages) Average of
10 years 1903-1912
147
TABLE XXll.-Comparative table of production of mangarse ore hy various coun-
During the
year 1912 0.24 11.041 6.161 &18 .55 .17 .95 .15 .281 1.6 .56 .261
Average of 10 years, 1UX-1912 Turkey............... India................. Japan ................ Brazil ................ Chile ................. Cuba ................ Colombia ............. OtJher countries ....... Oeorge ............... 27.491 9.14 Ukraine ..............
During the year 1912
-Great Britain. United Satea.. Germany ......... France ............... Belgium .............. Austria .............. Italy ................. -weden .......... Spain ................. Portugal ............. 4]reece ................
0.53 8.35 3.96 .65 *42 1.25 .20 .231 1.61 421 .39
1.22 0 30L.01 .67 .48 11.98 &64 .18 .......... oooo. .77 ............ :12 .62 1.71. 0 X 63 13.28! 6
TABLE XXIV.-World exports of manganese ore (in tons)

FromFrance .................................... Germany ............................... 12,2"29 i 4,809 12.289 7,;2 ! 0 1901 5.647 5, 53 2, !..
..... .... .
>
1902 1,948 4.528
Sweden ................................. Austria .....................................
Italy .............................................................. 2.470 Spain and Portugal ........................ 139, M4 140,816 110,716) Oree and Turkey ........................ 4,420 65,129 58,500 , 130,670 Indi...................................... 878 5225 Japan ..................................... 12,599 9 95 9,320 2,715 Chile .................................. 29.,51 40, W 93,127 Brazil ..................................... 27,441 74,238 20,582 Cuba_............................. ............ 1,0 700 Colombia............................... 11, 176 1 10.,160 8 ,220 1 6,300 Oiber countries ......................... 22,169 Total ......................... Georgia .................................. U'kraine .................................... Grand total ......................... 375.457 233.359 .4(6 614,284 477.869 361,830 20,107 M59,8W6
3,0 I . 1,967
8.392 2,721
1,127
52,26 5 133,170 8,811 31,477 105,710 23, 1 R 1400 2P, 783
9l.fro2
. ~ *ii0& 67,720 14,037 2.625 2.000 157,295 39,522 12,038 20.000 443,370
106,92
424,766
405.3,31
3,4,196
,17:300
0.129
549,2.'0 818
From-
1903
10 4 5.000 5,53m 2,400 5,000 . 18,732 59,000 154,880 1 3,109 4 04 , 5 A 2601 0 21,074 10,0001 5,000 5M,438 480,394 17,170 982,000
1905 M 5,000 4,116 .
1 3,635 2,510
.
1907 5.166 3,490 1,440 ,2
France .................................. 5.000' Germany .................................. 1,138 Swedene.................................. ...... ' Austria ...... . ......... ... . 878
Italy ..............................
. .....
....
Spain and Portugal ...................... Greece and Turkey ....................... India ...................................... 1 Japan ..................................... Chile ...................................... Braill.................................. Cuba ................................... :
Colombia .........................
........
Other countries ............................ Total ................................ coria............................... kraine ............................. Grand total........................
I.....
5,540 .5 440 171,80 i 3,258 10,000 161M 92 21,070 ,000
2,400 .
35,400 40:040 i 282,334 310,446 3,00 8,411 2.000. ............ 201,500 224337' 13,907 24,000 10,000 ...-----5,000, 15 639,104 301,613 8,042 , 431,123 68070
1, 193 641,692 65,00 271,375 35,123 15,882 1,68,131 377,769 87,949 ,63
523,354 434,448 12,760 970,562
948,75I 1,181,408 i
148
TABL
From-
.N/ATIONAL REPUBLIC "OF GEORGIA XXIV.-World exports of manganese ore (intons)-Oontinued

1908 940 2,332 109 1, 149 4,487 1910 722 4,278 1911 900 9,815 1912 2,270' 7,117
Sweden ................................................. Austria...................................... 787 Italy:* Rerand PortugaL ....................... 25,447 14,737 . Greece and Turkey........................ 7,600 7.700 India ...................................... 507, 633 467,274 Japan..................................... 4,348 60
F..ance. . ermany.............................
285 ,321 12,200 587,327 5,49
28229 8 155 33,26 3,207
53,828
341
Chile ...................................... ' .... I ....i ii N
5,000
3,980 534 2,400 3A, 34 , 600 821,898 882 ia4'87O
Brazil .............................. 2 247 Cuba ............. Colombia ..................................................................... Other countries ........................ 10000.............1,000 Total ................................ 743,58 740,808 388, 463~ 539,1841 .............................. U a njeorgia .................................. 62,413 50,192 Grand total ......................... 1,179,463 1,345,165
15,000
796,229 8,4 48,190 1,425,668
25,000
870,763 8,5 76,52 1,830,938
87,033
6W,348t 89,472 1,50 53
ASSOCIATION OF OEOROIAN MANGANESE
PRODUCERS
Eighty per cent of the mines in the Tehiaturi district are owned by a large number of Georgians who, in the beginning of the industry, began to exploit them without having sufficient knowledge of rational mining and without regard to any loss of the apparently inexhaustible ore. As each owner worked for himself difficulties soon arose, specially with regard to the transport of the ore in the narrow and steep valleys, and some kind of organization became necessary. The Association of Manganese Producers and Dealers was therefore formed, under the guidance of the Government, and comprising all the producers extracting at least 1,600 tons of ore, and all dealers exporting a minimum of 5,000 tons per year. It elected a council which convoked meetings of the members from time to time, as required, at Kutais. The task of the conneil is to organize and supervise the following matter: 1. The transport facilities by road or mechanical means. 2. The hospital and ambulance provided for the workmen. 3. The insurance of the workmen against accidents. 4. The installation of electric light in the mines and neighboring villages. 5. The installation of the telephone between Tchiaturi and Kutais, Poti, and Batum, Several schools and the water supply in some villages were later added to this list. To defray the expenses of these services the council had neen authorized by the Government to levy a tax of is. per ton on all ore sent from Tchiaturi by rail. This tax was in 1913 increased to a maximum allowed of 2s. 8d. per ton, but the association decided to collect only is. 8d. per ton from January 1, 1914. The voting conditions at the annual meetings, at which the managing council had to be elected, were formerly such as to give the small producers and dealers an overwhelming majority, and they used it elect councils in sympathy with their to views and willing to spend the proceeds of the tax for the purpose of assistIng them to compete with the large producers. As some of the latter had installed mechanical means for transporting. their ore from the mines to the railway, the smaller men wanted to have similar facilities provided for themselves at the expense of the whole association. A demand was thus voted in 1910 that the council should spend 1,000,000 roubles for this purpose, and also for housing workmen, etc. The necessary authorization was obtained from the government to construct, in the first instance, an aerial railway to Metchkevi, one of the more remote mines, but its execution met with such difficulties concerning rights of way, etc., and became finally so expensive, that the transport of ore by its means cost more than by the old bullock carts. As this experiment had given such unsatisfactory results, it was then thought advisable that the government should, in future, give these additional facilities. In 1913 the association was also granted the right to contract loans, and new rules were established concerning the voting power of the different categories of members. Although the small producers were doomed to disappear In the course of time, as larger capital iswanted for deep mining and the preparation of the
NATIONAL -R .P
UBC OT GEORGIA
149
Inferior ores, they are still numerous, and to counterbalance their number additional votes were given according to the output and export of the members for the possession of a washing p!ant, etc., so that a large producer can now have a maximum of seven votes, and smaller ones proportionately less. In this manner the principal firms expect to be in a better position to get their own proposals voted at tho meetings, and to avoid useless expenditures. The association did not hold its annual meeting in 1914, but it levied the tax of is. 8d. per ton agreed upon the previous year. Of this amount 4d. per ton was returned to those exporters who had concluded forward contracts for 1914 before the increased tax came into force, but this was only done during the first four months of the year. The number of the members of the association is 450, of whom 420 are Georgians and 30 foreigners. The president Bakradze. is Mr. G. Jouruli, the vice president S. Tseretheli, the secretary J.of the council The association has also a representative in of the council extend in many directions. It has constructed 23 The activities London, Mr. W. Tcherkesichvili. macadamized roads of a total length of 35 miles, and also five bridges; it installed water works supplyingstation with gallons of water, and a large public attendingthe workmen, an electric 11,000,000 36,600 kilowatt-hours, a hospital bath for to 0,137 out-patients during the year. It also keeps three schools for an average of 600 pupils, and spends 22,000 roubles per year for scholarships. A theater for workmen entertains somo 10,000 visitors per annum. The outbreak of the war and consequent absence of income stopped the further activities of the council, and expenditure was cut down to the unavoidable public services. But, as the above enumeration shows, the association has done very useful work for the manganese industry. PARTICIPATION OF FOREIGN
CAPITALa
The Georgian manganese industry was principally financed by the foreign importers of ore, in the beginning specially British, German, and French. The mine owners, being mostly small peasan~ts, did not possess the necessary capital for paying the labor, railway and shipping expenses, and advances had, therefore, to be mnade to them. This was done by transferring money to Caucasian banks, or toalso theat Batum, Poti, or Tiflis, who had to pay for the ore as it was produced and agents charges. Some 80 or 00 per cent of the estimated value of the shipments was thus paid before their real weight and tenor could be ascertained. This system gave rise to many stood between the losses, chiefly because in many cses Greek iltermeliaries (disappoilttlents andproducer and the foreign In exporter, and did not fulfill their many importers,prices went against them. own order to exert a closer control contracts when therefore, opened their branch offices in the Caucasus. From thi position there was only one step to the lnsand hi fact extensive areas aetu'l purchase of mines and manganesebear bought, specially in 1910 and 1911, by various of unworked manganeseertase foreign firms, mostly Germans. An American syndicate also took options on many such properties, but after examination by its engineers gave them up again because they found them insufficient for the large scheme they had in view, and because the best lands were not for sale. The chief companies operating in Tehiaturi before the war were the Sehalker Gruben & Huettenverein of Geisenkirchen, which consumes its own ore, Forwood and the Soci~t6 Industrielle et tons of highBros. (English), Panassie (French), has a plant producing 100,000 Commerciale of Antwerp. The last-named firm grade washedand independent producers sell their ore, as before, to brokers, who The small ore per year. stock it at the railway platforms and sell it to the smaller consumers. When the war broke out the Russian Government sequestrated the properties belonging to the two German companies and tried to sell them by auction. Many banking interests were anxious to secure them, and were supported by the notorious Rasputin; but the attempt was frustrated by the interference of the Georgian nobility and the Association of Producers, who demanded that the properties shouldbe sold to them as being on their national territory. the matter dragged on until the revolution, when the properties were finally secured by wealthy Georgian petroleum magnates. The following table gives some details onthe number of export firms and their relative importance.
NATIONAL
RPUBiJO 01 GE'ORGIA
TABLZ XXV.-Number of export firms

tColumn A, establised InTeblatur; coumun B, ettblsbed in Poll and Batum; column U, nC.mber of
to firms of Poll and Batum exporting more than 16,000 tons per year; column D, prcentap of the shipments of the large Arms compared with The total exports]
A
19 00...... 25 1901 ............. 21 19W2............. 21 9............. 20 104.............21 1908 ------------29
19e ............. 28
B
21
17 25 25 27 2
28
C 11
D
8 9 9 9
___
I4C
29~ 25
i 21 1V 20 17 17
ID
7 1 11
Per ent 588 190 .....7
13
88 190i ........ 8 791i909------------39 79 1910...........3-3M 33 7911911............. 77 1912 ............. 2 90
'Per cn 81 41 83
9J
85 90 97
OUTLOOK FOR TilE PRODUCTION
OF FERROMANOANESE IN GEORGIA
in the metallurgy of iron and steel, where manganese is looked upon as the principally with iron and some other elements. Such iron alloys containing up to 25 per cent of manganese are called Spiegeleisen, and those with more than 25 per cent are called ferromanganese. The
latter is now generally marketed with a tenor of about 80 per cent of manganese and is made by various processes, mostly in the blast furnace. It is added to the steel at the conclusion of the process just before casting. Its effects are: 1. The reduction of the small quantity of iron oxide remaining in the molten trusted remedy for improving the products of inferior iron ores. Pf About half of the manganese ore consumed in this industry is fed directly into the furnace, while the other *alf is used in the metallic state as an alloy,
More than 90 per cent of all the manganese ores produced in the world are used
metal.
2. The addition of the manganese needed in the finished steel, usually about
10.5 per cent. 3. It minimizes the formation of blowholes, neutralizes the sulphur contents,
aed produces a fluid slag. Somewhat similar effects are produced by the addition of silico-manganese, which contains from 25-30 per cent of manganese and 75-70 per cent of silicium and also acts as a disoxydizer. Silico-spiegel contains iron in addition. The usual quantity of ferronanganese added to ordinary steel is from 17 to 20 pounds per ton of steel produced, or a correspondingly higher percentage of spiegeleisen. according to its tenor in manganese. i For manganese-steel castings 312 pounds of ferromanganem of 80 per cent tenor are wanted to each ton of steel. The product then contains 124 per cent of manganese and has extraordinary properties of hardness and tensile strength. These alloys are being manufactured specially in the United Kingdom and in Germany in the blast furnace, while France makes them in the electric furnace, using the water power of the Alps. In America the United States Steel Corporation was the only regular producer until 1915, when int consequence of the diminution of the Imports five or six other companies started the manufacture, two of them by electric furnaces, the others in the older manner. Before the war the United States imported more than half of their consumption. Their imports for the last few years and the highest and lo'cst prices of ferromanganese delivered at the eastern ports were as follows:
Fmrrsrnanganese Spiegelcisen Pri -s per ton
TO=s 1912.................................................... 123,373
1913 ..................................................... 2.081 119.495 1

1914 .................................................... 100883 1915 ................................................... 14.542 1916 .................................................... 208.389
Tons 119, W6
Dollars 41-65
100,365 36-100 93.282 68-110 197,5181 *..............
"5-45
In February, 1917, the price of ferromanganese in the United States of America was from $16"4 to $175, and that of spiegel from $60 to $65. In April and May, 1917, the ferromanganese rose to $325 and even $450, while in February, 1918, it stood again at $251).
151
In the United Kingdom the official piea was fixed at 25 per ton in 191817 for home consumption and at 35 to 45 for export. The high prices and increasing demand for ferromanganese have for many years attracted the attention of the Georgian manganese producers and others interested in the business and impressed upon them the desirability of manufacturing these products near the mines. The advantages of such a course were evident, as it would save half the freight and give higher profits than the mining business. A French group of financiers studied the matter first, but as they intended to work by the blast furnace they found themselves arrested by the difficulty of finding the necessary furnace coke in the neighborhood of the mines. The coal of the Kvibuli collieries, situated at a distance of about 40 miles, gives a very friable coke which easily falls into powder ald is therefore quite unsuitable for blast furnace practice. 'For this reason the matter was dropped. In 1902 another project was brought forward by Mr. Gustave Gin, engineer, of Paris. He proposal to use the electric furnace instead of the blast furnace, and by this mcans eliminated the principal obstacle for which the former project had failed. The fact is that in the electric furnace most of the heat is supplied by the current, so that the coke is only necessary for the reduction of the ores. This reduces the requirements in coke to less than a quarter of the quantity necessary in the blast furnace, which latter amount, to about three tons of coke perton of ferromanganese. Also, in the absence of any blast in the electric furnace the pulverulent nature of the Kvibuli coke is without consequence. The advantages of this plan were, therefore, according to Mr. Gin, to place his factory in the immediate neighborhood of the mines and to use the force of the Kvirila River for the generation of tie necessary current. Exact calculations of the available power were not made at the time, but the necessary 15,000 horsepower can at all seasons be obtained from the river and its tributaries as they drain a large mountainous area, having a high rainfall and considerable snow in winter. AMr. Gin proposed to use his own patented method for the reduction of the ore, which consists in smelting it with sea salt and iron pyrites, and the necessary coke and coal. The salt and the sulphur of the pyrites form together sodium sulphide, which dissolves the manganese ore at a comparatively low temperature, and the metal in the solution is then reduced in the presence of the carbon. The gaseous products of the reaction are sulphurous acid, which is oxidized to sulphuric acid in the usual manner and as such used again for converting the caustic soda produced into sodium sulphide ready for the next operation. As there is, however, a mall loss of sulphur, some iron pyrites are added to replace it. Hydrochloric acid is also produced by the decomposition of the sea salt. Therefore the production of I ton of ferromanganese of 80-83 per cent tenor in manganese requires 2,000 kilos manganese ore, 50 per cent; 450 kilos sea salt, 60 kilos iron pyrites, 700 kilos coke, maximum; 500 kilos coal for heating. The products will then be 1,000 kilos ferromanganese; 100 kilos silicospiegel; 225 kilos caustic soda; 500 kilos hydrochloric acid 220 B. The electric current required for obtaining these products would be 6,440 kilowatt-hours. Mr. Gin's project, of which the above is a bare outline, then went fully into all the details of an installation producing 10,000 tons of ferromanganese per year, including the hydraulic power plant, electric installation buildings, land, etc., which is estimated at a total cost of 155,300. The ton of ferromanganese was calculated to cost 5 8a., while the usual cost of production in the blast furnace is between 7 and 8. Including the value of the by-products, the yearly profit on a production of 10,000 tons was thus calculated at 80,000, while the enterprise would require a total capital of 280,000. Although this project was not executed, it is clear that sooner or later the manufacture of the metal will be undertaken in the vicinity of the ore deposits, as the necessary power exists on the spot, and the question of fuel can, no doubt, also be satisfactorily organized. In fact, the Government itself is reported to have also considered the question in 1910, but it is to be hoped that private initiative will take the matter in hand. Whether the process of Mr. Gin be adopted, as outlined above, or the electric furnaces of Beroult Girod, or others, as used in the Alps, the profits are always considerable and the works prosperous. The establishments using the blast furnace are also in a favorable position. For producing I ton of ferromanganese they use about 1.9 tons of ore, 2.6 tons of coke, and 1 ton of limestone, and the smelting charges do not usually exceed 2.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA pay to export can be used by a smelter in the vicinity, thus avoiding great loss and the difficulties caused by the washing plants established on the Kvila. Finally, ferromanganese made in Russia is at present protected by an import duty of 5 10s. per ton.
PROSPECTS OF THE MANGANESE INDUSTRY
It Is also to be considered that much of the interior ore which it does not
In the foregoing pages we have tried to present as concise a picture as possible of the Georgian manganese industry, vastly supported with statistical material for reference purpose. We have demonstrated not only the utter inability of the old Russian Government to foster this vital industry, but also the methodical suppression on her part of every effort made by the Oeorgians to improve the condition of the trade. But in spite of all these difficulties the Georgian owners have succeeded in many ways. Sixty per cent of all the exploited mines were in their hands at the outbreak of the war, while powerful German and other foreign concerns owned 40 per cent. The Georgian National Bank of Tiflis had opened a branch In Tchiaturi for facilitating transactions on the spot; also, at the end of 1917, the Georgian miners had accumulated at Tehiaturi and at the ports of Poti and Batum stocks ef ore amounting to more than the average quantity exported in normal years, viz, about 1,100,000 tons at the mines and 80,000 tons at the ports. Concerning the future of this important industry we can to-day only give vague indications. There are many factors upon which its future depends. First and foremost among them is the future political position of Georgia, which at present is an independent State, as are her neighbors Armenia and Aberbeijan, and whose Independence will shortly be recognized by the peace conference. The manganese industry will be a very important source of revenue to the State of Georgia, and it is quite obvious that without the powerful assistance of foreign capital these vast deposits can not be brought to the state of efficiency which will secure for them a predominant p!aco compared with their Indian and Brazilian competitors. It may be that the State of Georgia will endeavor to obtain substantial loans for the future development of this business. In connection with the important untouched deposits of iron ore in the Caucasus a largo ferromanganese trade could be built up, and it is therefore necessary that the Allies should maintain a keen interest in this key industry, which wotld provide ample material for the shipbuilding and steel industries all along the shores of the Black Sea. In the beginning of 1915 the German papers mentioned the discovery of a substitute for manganese which would enable them to forego the importation of that ore. No details were given, and it is impossible at present to ascertain the exact value of such a substitute for the industry and its relative cost; but even if it should prove of real utility, it would only interfere with the export of the Georgian manganese ore and could not prevent the development of the steel industry on the spot. All tie mineral deposits on the Georgian territory are the property of the State, and a special mining board with seat at Tiflis is irccting the affairs connected with the mines. The State ownership is much more convenient for working the mines, by giving concessions to private companies and individuals, than would be the case if the mineral-bearing land were freehold, as in that case questions of titles would lead to numerous litigations in the courts and many other difficulties. The development of the huge mining resources of Georgia, as of the mining everywhere, would require the participation of foreign capital, which will have a rnt. very profitable field for its employ Since 1801, when Russia forcibly annexed the Kingdom of Georgia, in violation of the treaty of 1783, right up to 1917, when Georgia regained again her independence, Russia has done nothing at all to develop the mineral wealth of the country; what is more, Fhe prevented the foreign capital from entering this field, and the Caucasian Mlining Board, which under the old Russian Government was supposed to look after the mining developments in this vast area, had an annual budget of not more than 2,000. In addition to hundreds of other reasons as to why Russia has forfeited all her "claims" to Geoigia, this gross neglect of the
development of the mineral resources of Georgia stands against her as most damning evidence.
APPENDIX NO. 2 TREATY CONCLUDED 1783 BErWEEN CATHERINE 11, FMPRESS OF RUSSIA, AND
IRAKLY 11, KING OF GEORGIA
(Collection of Ru~slan Laws (Vol. XXI, No. 15M35), with preface by Mr. Paul Morlaud, professeur ft la faculty de drolt de l'Universitd de Geneve, and comments by Mr. A. Okoumeli).
PREFACE
The annals of Georgia antedate those of Greece and of Rome. Since the fourth century of our era she hats embraced Chrlstianism. In the middle ages, r'.th King David and Queen Thamar, she knew glory. Then came long centuries of murderous struggles against the Musselman, and we understand how, incessantly invaded and extorted by Turkey and Persia, she should make appeal to her big sister beyond Caucasia, professing the same religion. The Muscovite bear, alas, under pretext of protecting her, extends its paw on Georgia and crushes Its liberties. We can find in the Rusqian domination in Transcaucasia, a "historical" foundation, politicalca" reasons, but we can not give It a "lawful" base. This is plainly Aiown in the treaty published here. The Georgia original has disappeared, torn by ruse and violence from the hands of the Patriot Solomon L6onldz6. The text. fortunately. remains, in Russian In the Seod of Nicholas II, in German aind in French in the papers of the time. In 1783 Irakly II. King of Kartlille and of Kakhtie-Karthlie is the center and core of Georgia and Is also its real name, as Schwyz is the name of Switzerland-concluded with Katherine II, a treaty of friendship (preamble), of alliance (Articles IV and VI), and of establishment (Articles X and XI), and of protectorship at the same time. Knrithlie renounces only to its International sovereignty (Articles I and IV); its King to take an oath of fidelity to the Emperor, recognizing in him the supreme power (Article JII), and lie is to entertain no relation with neighboring sovereigns without the consent of INs. sla (Article IV) ; in return it Is assured the protection of the Itu.4ian Empire and tile guaranty of its territories (Articles II and III). Karthlle otherwise retains her entire independence. and ier Imperial Majesty pledges not to Interfere, in any way. with the Interior affairs of the country (Article VI); Karthlle even maintains an ambassador at the court of Russia. who shall be received "with the same honors as all other a ambassadors of the samne rank from other sovereign princes" (Article V). And this independence is assured for the future by the formal clause of Article XII, that no change In the treaty "can be made except by virtue of mutual consent." This treaty is the only one that was ever made between Karthhle and Russia. But Russia never respected it. During the 17 years until the death of King George XIII. son of Irakly, she does not protect her dependent; she leaves her to fight the Turks and Persians, irritated by this alliance, and allows the taking and destruction of Tiflis, capital of the Kingdom. Then the King, George, having died January 2'2, 1800, she took advantage of the favorable moment, and. profiting by the hesitations of David, son of George, in mounting the throne without having received the decree of Investiture provided by the treaty of 1783, Paul I. In a declaration dated January 28, 1801, decided to annex Georgia, and after some resistance, his successor, Alexander 1, September 12 of the same year, proclaimed the reunion of the two countries. The manifesto of Alexander. that we still see imprinted upon the walls of the nilitary museum at Tiflis, purely and simply decrees the annexation. Paul 1, ;n his project," attempted besides to justify it. He professes "the solicitude with which he has always been animated for the well-being of the
I See
the text In the "Recuell de Martens," 2d ed.. Vol. VII, pp. 313 and 314.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA people of Grusinie" (it Is the Rusian name for Georgia), and he pretends to. act according to its demands; "the Czar George Iraklievitsch," he says, "seeing the end of his days approaching, had recourse to our protection, by the consent of the first persons of his Empire and of the people themselves, and seeing no other means of salvation, to save themselves from an inevitable fall and to escape from the oppression of their enemies, they sent negotiators to beg us to adopt as immediate subjects of the Imperial Throne of Russia, 'Grusinle' and the provinces under its jurisdiction." Admitting that this step was other than an appeal to the protection promised and due, admitting even that it was of the character attributed to it by the Russian Sovereign, it was nothing more than a proposition made to Russia, and after the death of its author, the king, George, the negotiations should have been reopened with his successor David, to arrive at a treaty in good and due form, which alone could have taken the place of the regular treaty concluded "for always," by Katherine and by Irakly, and to which no change could be made "except by virtue of a mutual consent." The manifesto of 1801 is a purely one-sided act. It is not a treaty but an act of force. No more so than the consent of the king, whom Alexander I hastened to deport to Russia with all his family, had the annexation the consent of the Georgian people. They raised their immediate protestation. In 1802, in 1804, in 1810, In 1812, in 1813, insurrections burst forth. They recur at different times during the nineteenth century. And never have the Georgians ceased, since the fatal day, to hope for their independence. In solemnly proclaiming it on May 20. 1018, the National Council of Georgia only repaired the injustice committeed 100 years ago. No nation is more deserving of its freedom. Nothing unites it to the Russian people. Geographically even, Ru~sla ends at the Caucasian Range, formidable barrier, higher than the Alps. which separates European Russia from Georgia. an Asiatic land. The Georgians speak an original language, with no resemiance to the Slavish languages. They have their own culture, their songs and epopees, their art, their history, and their traditions. They do not desire to oppress their neighbors, as they do not claim the territories which they occupled in olden days, In the days of grandeur and power, they demand only the simple respect of their ethnographical frontiers, and while guaranteeing within their territory the same civil and political rights to all citizens, without distinction of race or of beliefs, the democratic Republic of Georgia has declared itself neutral in international conflicts. The thought could not for one instant be entertained of imposing upon it any union, any federation even, with its great northern neighbor. No one vill dare try to-day to revive the old treaty of alliance and of protectorship, which, in an hour of distress, lkakly I, son of Th~mourase, signed, and the rcp-ated violation of which, by Catherine II and by her successors, has rendered it forever valueless. GENEvA, October 10, 1919. Profcseur d la Facultd de drolt de lUnivcr i.
PAUL MORIAUD,
TaFATY
Since olden times, the Russian Empire, having the same religion as thepeople of Georgia, has served as the defense, support, and protection to the said people and their sovereigns against the oppression of their neighbors. The protection of the Russian Emperors accorded the Georgian Tsars, as well as to their family and subjects, has brought about that dependence which exists between these latter and the Emperors of Russia, and which is even a right included In the very title of the Russian Emperors. 11cr Majesty the Empress of Russia, who reigns for the happiness of all, has given proof in a satisfactory manner of her good will toward the Georgian people and of her magnanimous solicitude for their good by the great effort made by her for their liberty frout the ban of slavery, as well as for the suppression of the ignominious contribution demanded from some of these peoples consisting in the delivering of youths and maidens, and she remains well disposed toward their sovereigns. Showing proof of this favorable disposition by giving her acquiescence to the demands made upon her majesty by the Tsar Sdrdnissime of Karthlie and of Kakhdtie, Irakly, son of Theimourase, who solicits her acceptance together with all his. heirs and descendants, his kingdoms and domains under the sovereign protec-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GBOROIA
155
tion of her majesty, as welt as of his eminent heirs and descendants in recog. nition of the supreme power of the Emperors of all Russia over the Tsars of Karthlie and bf Kak*ISte. Her majesty has graciously consented to prepare and conclude with the Tmar 86r6nissime above-mentioned "a treaty of friendship," by reason of which, on the one hand of his highness, the said Tsar, in his personal name and in the name of his descencints, recognizing the supreme power and protection of Her Majesty the Empress of Russia, and of her eminent heirs, over the aovereigns and peoples of the Kingdoms of Karthlie and Kekhdtie, ejnd all the other domains belonging to them, would determine In most complete and solemn fashion his obligations toward the Russian Empire, and, on the other hand, Her Majesty the Russian Empress would solemnly declare which are the advan(ages and privileges accorded by the generous and powerful hand of her majesty to the peoples above-mentioned and to their serene sovereigns. In order to conclude this treaty, her majesty has given full power to the serene prince of the Russian Empire, Gregoire Alexandrovitch Potemkine, authorizing him in his absence to remit his power to a nominee of his choice; be by reason of this power has chosen for this object his excellence Hieur Paul Potemkine. And his Serene Highness the Tsar of Karthlle and of Kakh~tle, Irakly, son of Theimourase, on his side has chosen. and nominated as representatives, their excellencies his leftenant, the Prince Ivan Constantinovitch Bagration, and the adjutant general of his serene highness, Prince Gars6van Tchavtchavadz6. The plenipotentiaries hereunder named, beginning with the help of God the preliminaries, have reciprocally valued their full powers, and have coneluded and signed the following articles:
ARTICLE I
Ills Highness the Tsar of Karthlie and of Kakhtle. in his nume as well as in the names of his heirs and descendents, forever solemnly renounces becoming vassal of anyone or to be dependent for anything from Persia or any other power, and by these presents he declares before all the world that he and his descendents recognize no other sovereignty than the supreme power ond protection of her imperial majesty and of her eminent heirs and descendents, and swears fealty to the representatives of that crown and gives his formal promise to give his aid to the Russlan State whenever required of him.
ARTICLE It
Her imperial majesty, taking into consideration this sinceree and solemn promise of his highness, equally gives a guaranty, confirmed by her imperial word, that she and her descendents obligate themselves never to retract tile good will and protection accorded to the T.strs of Karthlile and of Kakhlitie. As proof of this. her majesty gives her imperial guaranty for the complete preservation of the actual territories of His Highness Tsar Irakly, son of Thelmourase, with the further understanding to spread this guaranty also to cover the territories which may be acquired in the future according to circumstances, and which will be firmly conferred to him.
ARTICLE II
As proof of the sincerity with which Ills Highness the Tsar of Karthlile and of Kakhdtie recognizes the supreme power and protection of the Russlan Emperors, it is stated that the tsars mentioned in mounting their throne, by right of the law of succession, should immediately advise time Imperial court of Russia of this, asking, by the intermediary of their ambassadors, confirmation with the investiture, consisting of an Imperial decree, a banner with the arms of the Russian Empire, In the center of which will be the arms of the kingdoms mentioned, a sword, a scepter, and an ermine mantle; these signs to be given, either by the ambassadors, or through the medium of the'frontier authorities, to the tsar, who, on receipt of them in the presence of the Russian minister, shall solemnly swear fidelity and zeal toward the Russian Empire, as well as recognition of the supreme power and protection of the Emperor of all Rusida, conforming to the treaty herewith. This ceremony to be carried out now also by Ills Highness the Tsar Irakly, son of Theimourase.
IN NATIONAL
REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ARTICLE IV
As a proof that the intentlonts of his highness, in view of.a restraining alliance with the Russian Empire, are sincere and that he recognizes the supreme power and protection of the serene sovereigns of that empire, his highness "promises never to have any relations with neighboring sovereigns without first consulting the first chief of the frontier or the minister of her imperial highness accredited to him; and when these neighboring sovereigns send him messages or letters, he must, on receipt of them, consult the first chief of the frontier or the minister of her imperial majesty for the return of these messengers as well as for the answer to be sent to their sovereigns.
ARTICLE V
In order to facilitate relations and agreements with the Russian Imperlat court, His Highness the Tsar wishes to*have a minister or representative at that court, and her Imperial majesty, in acceding to this desire, promises that he will be received at her court with the samd honors as all other ambassadors of the same rank, of other sovereign princes, and besides, her majesty has consented to having her own Russian minister or representativeremain with His Highness the Tsar of Georgia.
ARTICLE VI
Her imperial majesty, in accepting the supreme power and protection over the Kingdom of Karthile and of Kakhetie, promises in her name and in the name of her heirs: (1) To look upon the peoples of these kingdoms as forming a close alliance and perfect accord with the empire of her majesty and, in consequence, to treat the enemies of these peoples as her own enemies; therefore, a peace concluded with Turkey or Persia, or any other power or province would take effect also in connection with these peoples, protected by her majesty; (2) promises to keep always on the throne of Karthlie and of Kakhftle the Tsar Irakly, son of Thelmourase, and his heirs and descendants; (3) promIses not to interfere with the interior affairs of the country, to take no part in the executive power concerning the Interior government, or in the justice or imposition of taxes, which remain the complete property of that Tsar, and to forbid her chiefs, both military and civil, to prevent the execution of given orders.
ARTICLE VII
HIs Highness the Tsar, in accepting with respect this demonstration of good will on the part of her imperial majesty, pledegs his name and In the name of his descendants: (1) To be at all times ready with his troops to enter the service of her majesty; (2) to remain in constant connection with the Russian authorities in satisfying their demands and In protecting. Russian citizens against all offense or oppression; (3) to appoint them in office and to elevate them In rank, showing regard for their merits In the same respect as the Russian Empire, upon whose protection depends the peace and proseprity of the Kingdoms of Karthlie and Kakhdtle.
ARTICLE VIII
As proof of her imperial and particular good will toward Ills Highness the Tsar and all his peoples, her imperial majesty orders, in an aim toward a close union of these peoples coreliglous with Russia, that the Catholics or the patriarch of Georgia shall have the eighth rank among archbishops of Russia; that is, after the archbishop of Tobolsk, by conferring upon him forever the title of membre du saint-synode. As to the administration of the Georgian Church and its relation with the saint-synode, this will be taken up in a separate treaty.
ARTICLE JX
Alo in proof of her great good will toward the subjects of Ills Ilihness the Tsar of Georgia toward the princes and nobles of that kingdom, her imperial majesty decrees that these shall have the same privileges and advantages as the nobles of Russia; and so that Her Majesty the Empress of Russia may know to whom these titles belong, the Tsar of Georgia shall send to the court of her majesty lists concerning these personages.
NATIONAL BEPUBIJ
ARTICI X
OF'GHORGIA
157
It is decreed that, in general, all the natives of Karthlie and of Kakh~tie who wish to establish themselves with their families in Russia, or to go there und return, may do so freely; as to the freed prisoners of the Turks or Persians or other peoples, byarms or by negotiation, they shall be free to return to their country, reimbursing only the expense of their liberation; His Highness the Tsar promising to do the same for Russian subjects finding themselves prisoners in neighboring countries.
ARTICLE XI
The merchants of Karthlte aud of Kakhtie have the same rights and privileges of commerce in Russia as aU other Rusian citizens; and, in return, the tsar pledges himself to the decree, in collaboration with the high chief of Russian merchants going to Georgia or elsewhere, in passing through his country, taking into consideration their commercial interests, for without such a decree there would be no consideration of the privileges mentioned for his merchants.
ARTICLE XII
the frontier or the minister of her majesty, to grant all possible facilities to
The present treaty Is to remain forever in effect. However, it Is thoroughly understood that in the case of a necessity for any change whatsoever, this change can not be made except by virtue of a mutual consent. ARTICLE Im Confirmation of this treaty must be made within six months from the date of its signature, or sooner if possible. In witness of the authenticity of this treaty, the undersigned plenipotentisries, conformable to their writs, have signed these articles and affixed their seals, In the fortress of Georgievsk, the 24th day of July, 1783. PAUL POTEmKINE. Prince IVAN BAGP&TION. Prince GARS&VAN TCHTAVTCHAVADZE.
SEPARATE AGREEMENT'
ARTICLE 1I In order to protect the domain of Karthlie and of Kakhdtie from all attack on the part of its neighbors and to give the rcessary reinforcement to the armies of his highness the tsar, her imperial majesty pledges the maintenance In the domains of his highness of "two complete battalions of Infantry with four cannons," which battalions shall be nourished conformably in accord between his highness and the high chief of the frontier according to a fixed tariff. 'The original of the separate agreement contains, aside from the above articles, the first and third of which the following is a summary: In Article I Tsar Irakly was counseled to retain the friendship and to remain in understanding with the Tsar of imrthle, Solomon II, so that their people, of like religion and Itommon origin, shall keep their friendship and their perfect accord to repel with their united forces all attempts against their liberty, their peace, and their prosperity ; her imperial majesty promises not only to concur to this profitable deeo but to give her guaranty to this peace and this entente. The Tsar Irakly declares, from then on. in his relations with the Tsar Solomon II, to take her Imperial majesty as supreme arbiter and pledges himself to submit the litigations and misunderstandings which might come up between the two monarchs against their will, to her sovereign decision. Article III says that In case of war the general chief of the frontier has always full power from her imperial majesty to come to an understanding with the Tsar of Karthile and of Kakhbtle and to take the necessary measure to assure the defense of the above. mentioned territories, and to determine the course of action to take against th, enemy which shall be considered their common enemy. At the same time it Is decided thai if a part of the army of Karthlie and Kakhotie is placed at the service of her Imperial majesty outside of the territories of Georgia, It shall be treated and maintained on the same footing as the other armies of her imperial majesty.
8S
ATONAL DEPPUBUO Of 01040i1A

ASIUCIS IT
In case of war, her imperial majesty prol.rises to do everythWg possible by arm, and In times of peae-by perenasio--to obtain the return of all terri. tories which previously belonged to the Kingdom of Karthhle and KakhGtie
rid which 1sli remain In possession of the said kingdom based on this treaty. These separate articles have the same value as the principal treaty and must be ratified at the same time as the principal treaty.. In witness of the authenticity of this agreement, the id'lraigned plenipotentiaries, conformable to their writs, have signed these articles and affixed their seals, In the fortress of GMorglevsk, the 24the day of July, 1783
PAUL POTEMKINE.
Prince IVAN BART51no.

Prince OAS *VAN TCAVMOHAVADZE.
On August 20 of the same year, 1783, the present treaty was solemnly made public at Tiflis, and in the month of November Of the same year, confirmations were mutually made. COMMENTS The preceeding treaty, concluded in 1783 between the Empress of Russia, Catherine II, and the King of Karthile and of Kakhetle (oriental Georgia), Jrakly II, Is the older', and in consequence, the most important of the anulogous treaties, concluded later between the Emperors of Russia and the King of Im0rthle (1804) and the sovereign princes of 31ingr~lie (1803), of Gourle (1810) of Abkhasle (1810), and of Svanethle (M3)-that Is, occidental Georgia. All these kingdoms and principalities, intimately joined together by unity of race, language, of Christian civilization, and national conscience, formed since ancient times a single Georgla, or Iberia. We find this fact eonfirmed, among others, by the very title of the EmperorA cf Russia who called themselves "Tsars of Georgia." The preamble to the rtaty of 1783 contains the reasons for its conclusion: After about 2,000 years of independent existence, filled with tihe most terrible trials and heroic actions, Georgia was finally obliged to yiehl to historic necessity and to look for protection from Russia who professed the same religion. Since the fall of Constantinople (1453), completely separated from occidental Europe, with which she endeavored always to preserve direct relation., little Georgia found itself like a sall linlud in the middle of a sea of mussulmen, whose tide threatened to swallow it up at any moment. This is the period whih alludes to the secular struggle of Georgia, a fight of life or death, against her largest and most cruel neighbors; Turkey and Persia,. who.e hordes again and again put the entire city afire and, in bloodshed, transformed the towns and villages into plies of ruins, and taken away each time with them some tens of thousands of women and men. It Is during this period also that occurred among other things, the parceIling of Georgia, until then united, into various kingdoms and principalities, as well as the separation and violent islamisation of the entire south occidental region: Meskhethle and Tehanethle. that is the Provinces of Akhaltzikh, Akhalkalaki, Batoum, Ardnghan, Olthy, of Lazistan-the ancient cradle of intellectual growth and of the formation of the State. Among the fatal results of these terrible trials we can cite the enormous decrease in the population which, from 7,000,000 Inhabitants in the fifteenth century, fell near the end of the eighteenth century to less than 500,000, while the territory of Georgia was lessened by a third. Submitting from all sides to the pressure of her neighbors, drained to the limit, terribly mutilated-such was Georgia at the time when she voluntarily renounced a part of her political sovereignty in favor of Russia, from whom she awaited the healing of her wounds. Let us go on to a brief analysis of the treaty of 17M. It is very useful to distinguish its form and Its contents. As to its form, the treaty satisfies all the exigencies of International law. In leaving out the clashing of phrases and the pompous style which characterize that period, we find before us a habitual bilateral act, passed between the legal representatives of the two contracting parties, lussia and oriental Georgia, who possess equal right, and ratified later by the sovereigns of both nations. The two parties establish certain reciprocal rights and
NATIONAi REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
159
accept certain obligations one to the other without restriction as to duration, While Article XII declares formally that modification of the treaty "can not be made except by virtue of a mutual consent." As to that which concerns the contents. the treaty places in a general way Georgia under the protection of Russia. This dependence is mitigated by the formula given by Catherine II which defines it as a "close alliance" (Art. VI.) and names the act "a treaty of friendship" (see the preamble). In virtue of this state of protection, Georgia renounces to the independent management of her exterior policy. Conforming to Article IV of the treaty, the King Irakly II "promises never to have any relations with neighboring sovereigns without first consulting the first chief of the frontier or the minister of her Imperial highness accredited to him." In exchange, in the possession of interior administration, the treaty diminishes in no way the sovereignty of Georgia. By virtue of Article VI, Catherine II "promises not to interfere with the interior affairs of the country, to take no part In the executive power concerning the interior government, or in the justice, or imposition of taxes, which remain the complete property of that Tsar, and to forbid her chiefs, both military and civil, to prevent the execution of given orders." As a proof of the fact that the two states establish their relative rights on a basis of international law, Catherine II and Irakly II reciprocally appoint in their residences, at Peterbourg and at Tflls, respective diplomatic representatives (Art. V). The same character of international relations stands out In much greater relief in Articles X and XI, in which Catherine II and Irakly II promise mutually within the limits of their territories to exercise protection with regard to prisoners of war, merchants, and in a general way all those within the jurisdiction of the two states. But the aim of Georgia was to obtain from her patroness, Russia, a solid guaranty as to the defense of her frontiers against outside enemies. And, in fact, Catherine II in promising "to treat the enemies of these peoples (Georgians) as her own enemies" (Art. VI), "gives her imperial guaranty for the complete conservation of the actual territories of His Highness Tsar Irnkly, son of Theimourase, with the further understanding to spread this guarantee also to cover the territories which may be acquired in the future according to circumstances, and which will be firmly conferred to him" (Art. II). Particularly interesting is the last part of the guaranty, in which Catherine II promises to annex new territories to Georgia. Which territories could these be? Without doubt, those of south occidental Georgia (Akhaltzikh, Akholkalaki, Batoum, Ardaghan, Olthy, Lazistan) of which we have spoken above. This is evidenced plainly in Article IV of the separate treaty, concluded at the same time as the general treaty. "In case of war "-says this article--" her imperial majesty promises to do everything possible by arms, and in times of peace-by persuasion-to obtain the return of all territories which previously belonged to the kingdom of Karthlie and Kakhette and which shall remain in possession of the said kingdom based on this treaty." Thus it is evident that by territories "which may be acquired in future" with the help of .tussia, is meant the provinces which once belonged to Georgia and which were taken from her by Turkey at different periods. The question of knowing why these provinces were not mentioned expressly, answers itself, if one takes into consideration that to name them in a treaty destined to promulgation, would have been equivalent to a declaration of war on Turkey, which neither Russia nor Georgia at that time desired. Later Russia did effect a reattachment to Georgia of most of these provinces: In the first instance, those of Akhaltzikh and Akhalkalaki, by virtue of the treaty of Andrinople (1829), then those of Batoum, Ardaghan, and Olthy at the same time as Kars, in conformation with the treaty of Berlin (1878). As to Lazistan, it remained up to the late World War in the posgession of Turkey, being a part of the Trebizonde Empire. It is not possible to go into details here about these provinces. It is suffi. cient to remark that from an ethnical, historical, and economical point of view, they form un organic and inseparable part of the Georgian Republic, and that they should be recognized as such by the peace conference at Paris. In speaking of the separate agreement, it is impossible to pass Article II without comment, by virtue of which Catharine II "pledges the maintenance in the domains of his highness of two complete battalions of Infantry 96153-26-----11
160
with four cannons." This measure of precaution was very opportune, and was taken on the initiative of Irakly II himself, who could not lose sight of the fact that the alliance with Russia would result in a new invasion by his extremely Irritated neighbors. This invasion, In fact, took place soon after the conclusion of the treaty, and the old King, Irakly II, abandoned by Russia, fought his last and celebrated battle against Persia on the fields of Krtzanissy. This battle, while giving temporary victory to the arms of Georgia, resulted in the plunder and complete destruction by fire, 'f the capitol, Tiflis. (179-5.) . There remains but to say a few words about the fate of the treaty of 1783 and of Its present lawful value. It must first be stated that the above-mentioned treaty was destroyed with the most complete dishonesty by the manifesto of September 12, 1801, which was published by the Emperor, Alexander I, and which simply declared Georgia annexed to Russia. This act, as well as the analogous unilateral acts which followed it and which abolished all the rights and all the franchises of the Georgian people, were altogether contrary to the treaty, and particularly to Its Article XII which established the consentment of both parties as a necessary condition for any modification. The annexation of Geoigia, by Russia, did not pass unnoticed by the outside world; on the contrary, England and France raised formal protest against this act. Moreover, this act of violation was never approved by any International congress of nations, and In consequence it remained illegal until the dismemberment of Russia even, following the last World War. It Is besides not devoid of interest to call attention to the fact that the treaty of 1783 was never formally abolished by the Government of the Romanoffs and that It figures In every collection of Russian laws without exception. But, the events of these later days automatically annulled this treaty, which. at the present time, is nothing more than a purely historic document. We know that, since the Bolshevist stroke in November, 1017, Russian power ceased to exist in Georgia. It disappeared, not only because Georgia did not recognize the domination of the Bolsheviks, but more particularly because the entire Russian equipage, military, administrative, and judiciary, ceased to function on the Georgian territory; as to the functionaries themselves, they have, for the most part crossed the frontiers of Georgia to try to enter the service of the General Denikin and other "restorers" of czarist Russia. ;However, the disappearance of Russian bureaucracy by no means signified the disappearance of all power In Georgia. Already under the Lvof-Kereusky Government, all of Transcaucasia, and particularly Georgia, was being adminIstered In an altogether autonomous manner, having at its head, in place of the ex-vice king, the special Transcaucasian committee, whose members were recruited particularly from among the deputies of the Transcaucasian peoples, atthe fourth Douma. In the beginning, this committee was vested not only with the administrative powers of a vice king, but also with legislative powers. Using these vast powers, the peoples of Transcaucasia had already succeeded In organizing themselves into many distinct units and passed many reforms which laid the foundation of the complete nationalization of all the governmental and local Institutions. And It is Just at the height of this creative activity that, within the boundary of the federative Russia which was to be formed, exploded the Bolshevik bomb, following which the autonomous peoples of Transcaucasia declared their independence of Russia. Georgia, in particular, immediately after the stroke In question, in the morfIt of November, 1917, had its national congress, during which was elected the national council, which in fact concentrated within its hand the entire administration of the country. This first step was followed on May 26, 1918, by the formal declaration by the national council of the independence of the democratic Republic of Georgia, which fact was duly made known to the governments of all foreign states. The National Council of Georgia, which took the name of provisional parliament, gave way, March 12, 1919, to the constituent assembly, elected according to the proportional system based on universal, equal, direct, and secret voting of all citizens of both sexes having attained 20 years of age. The constituent assembly confirmed unanimously the act of Independence of Georgia and began the elaboration of the constitution of the Republic. Now, Georgia has her representatives at the peace conference in Paris, from which she expects her formal recognition.
161
Therefore, at the same time as the disappearance of Russian power In Georgia, there took its place a national power, absolutely supreme in exterior affairs as well as in interior affairs. This national power dnds its expression as the government responsible before the constitutent assembly for the army, justice, administration, the state budget, etc. On order to complete what has already been said, we must particularly note a fact which is of the greatest importance. The treaty of 1783, as we have seen, imposed on Russia the obligation of defending by all means possible the frontiers of Georgia against exterior enemies. Moreover, the separate treaty directly announced the obligation of Russia to maintain toward this end on the Georgian territory a certain number of duly equipped troops. But, in which way did Russia fulfill this obligation? The answer to this question is clear to all those who have followed the tragic events which took place in Caucasia in the beginning of 1918. Following on the conquest of the power in Russia by the Bolsheviks, the Caucasian front was completely destroyed and the Russian troops retreated precipitately to the north, abandoning to Turkey almost all its armament and all its munitions. A short time later the Bolshevist Government concluded the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, by virtue of which Batoum, Adraghan, and Kars, being the three fortresses of Georgia and of Transcaucasia, passed into the hands of the Turks. Thug Georgia was treacherously delivered to the mercy of that same Turkey against which Russia pledged itself to defend her. Georgia, therefore, found itself In the same situation as before the conclusion of the treaty of 1783, with a slight difference that this time she had to defend her Independence by arms not only against the Turkish invaders, amply provided with the materials of Russian warfare, but also against the Bolshevik detachments which, at three different times, attacked her from the north. The conclusion of all this can only be the following: Russia, in the person of the Bolshevik Government, of its own free will withdrew its armed forces from the Georgian territory, and, in giving up Georgia to her fate, renounced definitely to the rights-if they still have any value whatsoever-derived from the treaty of 1783. As to the attempts made by the Bolshevik Government to conquer Georgia, they were completely checked. It is important to call attention to the fact that Georgia was never conquered by Russia, that she voluntarily entered with her into certain stipulated relations of international character, and that it was also voluntarily that she was abandoned by Russia after the war and the revolution. Therefore, the International situation of Georgia, as a fact as well as by right, is altogether clear to those who are without prejudice. If there is a people having the right of independent political existence, certainly it is the Georgian people, which has not only manifested before the entire world its firm resolution to become free and independent, but also has given indisputable proof of its intention to defend its precious rights. At the historical moment when, after unheard of suffering, humanity has at last approached the realization of its fondest thought, especially of the creation of the League of Nations--the surest pledge of the Inviolability of nationalities small as well as large-the young democratic Republic of Georgia has no need to look for further protection than that of the League of Nations, in which she will enter, we firmly hope, in complete equality of rights. A. OKOUMELLo GENOA, September, 1919.
APPENDIX NO. 2 [Article published in The Christian East] THE AUTOCEPHALY OF THE ORTHODOX CHLwuCH or GEoRGIA (By Prince Ilamas Dadeshkellani) On March 12, 1917, the Georgian episcopate, clergy, and laity Issued a declaration, according to which the Orthodox Church of Georgia (or Iveria), after a hundred years' lapse, reentered Into the exercise of her most ancient autosephaly (or hierarchical independence of all other ecclesiastical authority). * Two weeks later (March 27, 1917) the Russian Provisional Government passed the Jaw "Concerning the regulation of the Juridical consequences relative to the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the ancient Orthodox Church of Georgia." By thiq act the Russian State power1. Noted, acknowledged, and sanctioned, as far as the Russian State was concerned, the declaration of March 12 regarding the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the Orthodox Church of Georgia; 2. Regulated the Juridical consequences which resulted, for the State, from this reestablishment, thus 3. Restoring to the Orthodox Church of Georgia the practical possibility of exercising the rights of autocephaly which have belonged to her from remote antiquity, and 4. Putting an end to that anticanonical order of things by which the Georgian Orthodox Church was, In the Russian State--from the time of the annexation of the Kingdom of Georgia to Russia (1801)-practically deprived of her ancient rights of autocephaly. We say practically because by right, canonically (I. e., juridically in the ecclesiastical sense), this autocephaly had never been abolished. The provisional government, born of the first Idealistic period of the Rus. sian revolution, considered Itself called to fufill the cherished aspirations of Russian society. Endeavoring to rectify as soon as possible the faults and injustices of the old power, It proclaimed, a few days after Its formation, the independence of Poland; and, with the same Idee, reestablished, during the first month of its existence the autocephaly of (be Georgian Church; for this autocephaly counted supporters evcm among the conservative Russian poll. tielans of the old regime (as, for L-stance, Duinovo), who considered it abnormal that one of the most ancie-L churches of the orthodox world, the Georgian (or Iverlan) Church, was In an orthodox State like Russia deprived of her autocephaly In an anticanonlcal way-in other words, against the existing canonical principles of the orthodox church; that Is to say, not by decision of competent canonical authorities, but simply in execution of an order of the laic power (decrees of Emperors Paul I and Alexander I), being forcibly converted Into a simple diocese, and subjugated to the rule of another much younger orthodox church-the Russian Church. We wish here to point out the comparative antiquity of the churches, because the orthodox church classes the local churches of which she is composed by order of seniority. We shall also bear In mind, in what follows, the fundamental principle of orthodox canonical law, according to which a local church acquires autocephaly, either by virtue of decision of the ecumenical (universal) authority of the orthodox church, or by resolution of that autocephalous church from which she branches. Further, according to the same principles of canonical law, a local already autocephalus church loses her autocephaly-by virtue of decision of the ecumenical authority, or by its own formal resolution carried out by her duly qualified canonical institutions. 162
163
We shalt also point out In this connection that the deprivation of -the Georgian Church of Its most ancient autocephaly had not only never been contemplated by any ecclesiastical authority whatever, but that this ques-" tion had never even been raised. This deprivation took place only by command of the Emperor Paul I (1801), who ordered that the Georgian Church be subjugated to the rule of the synod of the Russian Church. The action of this decree of the laic power was annulled by another decree of this same latc power--. e., by the law of the provisional government of March 27, 1917. The law of March 27, 1917, reestablished the autocephaly of the Georgian Church, setting forth that the rules which would regulate, in the future, the existence of the Georgian Church in the Russian State would be drawn up together with the superior authority of this church (pending the election of the catholicos patriarch, the temporary government of the Georgian Church had at that time as head, Leonidas, bishop of Gurla and Mingrelia.) These rules were drawn up and issued on July 25, 1917, under the title of "Temporary rules on the situation of the Georgian Church in the Russian State." The two legislative acts of the provisional government concerning the Georgian Church (the law of March 27, 1917, and the "temporary rules" of July 25) created a regime of coexistence In the Russian State of two orthodox churches-the Russian and the Georgian. The provisional government conserved, pending the convocation of the constituent assembly, the ord.'r which existed under the Empire dealing with the financing by the State of the confessional organizations, and their subordination to government control in certain matters (nomination of the clery, etc.) We shall see later on, that these two laws, while reestablishing in principle the rights of the Georgian Church, were far from being perfect, presenting internal contradictions and giving to the principle proclaimed an incomplete and Irregular embodiment; but let us now consider Geoigian Church history, noting several dates which mark certain stages in the process of the development of the canonical Independent, or autocephaly, of the Georgian Church. The merits of the Georgian Church before the universal church are great 1; but for the Georgian nation its church has been, as was set forth in the letter addressed to the Conference at Genoa by Ambrose, cathollcos-patriarch of Georgia, the " principal factor of the power and glory of the national Georgian State." We may refer those interested in Georgian Church history to the considerable literature on this question, in Georgian, Russian, French, and English (in the first place to: "L'Eglise g~orglenne des origins jusqu'lA nos Jours," by Michel Tamaratl-Rome, 1910, and "Sketches of Georgian Church history," by Archdeacon Dowling, D. D., London, 1912) and to the more special publications of philological, canonical, patrological character, etc." The history of the orthodox church of Georgia reveals a typical process of the birth and development of a local orthodox church; baptized by missionaries of a neighboring church, the newly converted flock passes the first period of its church life In a close canonical dependence on the mother church, as the local ecclesiastical life develops and the national hierarchy strengthens, the new diocese receives a larger autonomy; the ties which attach it to the distant mother church weaken, becoming more and more nominal; In the last stage We have the testimony to this effect of many Christian historians; e. g., Kerakos. an Armenian histeilan of the thirteenth century, says that Queen Tamara. of Georgia, made a treaty or peace with the Sultan of Damascus. and since that time the sultans have treated Christians more humanely. Dosltheus, patriarch of Jerusalem, says the pious Iverian kings have always been admintrators and protectors of the Holy sepulchre and other holy places. The Arab historian, Ibn Shaddana, also says that Queen Tamara offered Salladin 200,000 dinars for the holy cross, and In 187 asked that the monasteries taken from the Christians should be restored. Even at the present day there are at the holy places, Mount Athos Bulgaria, Syria, Cyprus, Antioch, over 30 monasteries and churches built by the Georgians. Published by the Georian 8ocle of and Etnorp ; the GeorgianChurch Museu; the Rfaculty Academy of .languages (Texts and Researches in Armeno- eorg an ausian Philolog'y) ; thePhilology); oriental Science of the University of Petrograd (Collections of in .apbetcal the UnIversity of Tiflls (" Sdzveleni Sakartvelossl") and various separate works of Professors Marr, Taknlchviil, Tsagarel, Kekelidze, etc.
164
t.e dependence on the mother church expresses Itself in forms of subordination more symbolical than practical (for instance by the ratification by the mother church of the local primate before his elevation to this dignity; by the sendtog to the metropolis of a certain amount of the church receipts; by the mention of the name of the head of the mother church at service; by the obligatory reception of the holy oil from the mother church, etc.). Lastly comes the formal granting of complete independence from the mother church. As said above, this takes place either by decision, of an ecumenical council or according to the resolution of the mother church. Autocephaly was so received by the orthodox churches of Cyprus (and later) Greece, Rumania, Serbia, Montenegro, Bukovino-Dalmatia, etc., and so also by the ancient Georgian Church. Born at the point where two Orthodox Church currents meet-the influence of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and that of the Patriarchate of Antiochthe Georgian Church attributes to Nino, a Holy virgin who came from Byzantium, the conversion to Christianity of the Georgian nation (326) and to the activity of the thirteen Syrian Fathers, who came from Antioch (St. John of Zedazeni and his 12 disciples), both its further propagation In, and the foundation of, the hierarchy in Georgia. In 384 the Georgian Bishop Pantophilos assisted at the second ecumenical council, which transferred the Georgian Church from the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople to that of the patriarch of Antioch. In 458, in the reign of the Georgian King Vakhtang Gargaslan and of Anas. taslus I, Emperor of Byzantium, the archbishop of Mtkheta, the Georgian capital, was elevated to the rank of catholicos (a title belonging in the Christian East to the heads of local churches). The Antiochian patriarch Palladius, from whom the Georgian (Iverian) Church then depended, sent to Mtskheta the first Catholicos, Peter (a Greek), and from that time the Iverian Church enjoyed a certain autonomy in its interior affairs, bt its head remained a Greek, receiving consecration from the patriarch of Antioch. In 553. in the reign of Georgian King Pharsinan, the Catholicos of Miskheta and all Georgia, was elected by and from among the Georgian clergy, continuing to receive consecration from Antioch. In the eighth century, after the death of the Catholicos Ba:rtholomew, hict successor. Catholicos John, went. to Antioch, where the council of the Antiochian Church, presided over by the patriarch Theophilactus, granted autocephaly to the Georgian Church. In the tenth century the Catholicos of the Georgian Church was elevated to the dignity of patriarch and Catholicos of all united Georgia. The decision concerning tle granting of autocephaly to the Georgian Church was later confirmed: (1) In the eleventh century by the patriarch of Antioch, Theodosius (in connection with the question of the preparation of the holy oil) ; (2) by the council of the Antlochlan Church (also in the eleventh century) presided over by the patriarch Peter: (3) and in the same century by his successor, Theodosius. The great canonist of the orthodox church, Theodore Balsamon, patriarch of Antioch, in his analysis of chapter 2 of the resolutions of the ecumenical councils, mentions the Georgian Church among the autocephalous churches of the East, and writes that the archbishop of Iveria was recognized as independent by the Antiochian couticil. The Byzantine caronist-Mathias Vlastav, author of the Elementary Syntagma-also states that the Georgian Church is not dependent on any of the eastern patriarchs. Being autocephalous, the Georgian Church took part in the common life of all the churches. She was invited to take part fit: 1. The Council of Basle. 2. The Council of Florence, from which her representatives, the metropolitans John-Gregory and Dositheos, withdrew, considering as unacceptable the plans of the Emperor John VI. 3. The Council of Moscow (1666), which was convoked for the trial of the Patriarch Nikon of IHussin, at which the Georgian Church was represented by the metropolitan Epiphanius and the Archimandrite Pachomius. But the process of the canonical development of the Georgian Church did not stop with acquisition of complete canonical independence. The expansion of the Kingdom of Georgia, its gradual decentralization, and the development $By tradition Iverla Is still mentioned in the full title of the Patriarch of Antioch.
165
of the political autonomy of the western Georgian Providences, involved the necessity of granting to the senior among the bishops of these Provinces a canonical autonomy. . This perfectly canonical process ended In 1390.by the granting of autocephaly to the Archbishop of BitJvinta (or Abkhasia), with the title of Catholicos of Abkhasia and BitJvinta, and from 1444, of Catholicos of Abkhasia, Imeretia, and western Georgia. His spiritual jurisdiction extended over all the autonomous principalities of western Georgia (Imeretla, Guria, Mingrelia, Svanetia, and Abkhasia). In 1657 the seat of the Catholicos of western Georgia was transferred to Gelati, near Kutais. Such a canonical division of Georgia into two Cathollcosates vas fully acknowledged by the Orthodox Patriarchs of the East. We have testimony to this effect from the Patriarch Macarlus of Antioch, and the Patriarchs Dositheos and Chrysanteus of Jerusalem, who addressed themselves, according to a special formula, to each of these two Catholleol. The existence or the autocephalous Catholicosate of western Georgia continued from 1390 to the end of the eighteenth century. Exhausted by a thousand years' strife for the defense of Christianity against Islam in the person of its diverse representatives (Arabs in the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries; Turks-Seldjuks in the eleventh century; MongoloTartars, under the leadership of Tchingls-Khan, in the thirteenth century; Tartars, lead by Tamerlan, in the fourteenth century; Persians and Turks in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries), Georgia turned for help to her northern neighbor and coreligionist, Russia. By a treaty, signed in 1783 by Catherine II. Empress of Russia, and the Georgian King Heraelius II, Georgia put herself under the protectorate of Russia, who, on her side, assumed the obligation of the defense of Georgia from foreign aggression, conserving to her a complete autonomy in internal affairs, and guaranteeing the succession of the Georgian Royal dynasty of the Bagratids. Although canonical law, as we have said above, can not be the object of constitutional or international legislation, we will here note that. according to the treaty of 1783, the Orthodox Georgian Church was left unchanged. Twelve years after the conclusion of this treaty, when the armies of the Persian Shah Aga-Mahomet-Khan, who was irritated by the fact that Georgia had put herself under Russian protection, approached the Georgian frontiers, Russia, failing completely in her obligation, gave no help whatsoever to Georgia, who fell a victim to nn invasion the like of which had not been suffered by her since the days of Tamerlan. The rest of the story is known: King Heraclius II died without having seen the liberation of his country, which was reduced to desolation and burning ruins. His son, King George XIII. reigned three years and a half. After the invasion of Georgia. which took place under the eyes of an indifferent Russia, in answer to the request of the Georgian Government to consider the question of a more effective defense of Georgia In the future, the Rus.lan Emperors Paul I and Alexander I, after the death of King George XIII, simply annexed the kingdom of Georgia to Russia, proclaiming her n department of their empire, thus canceling the treaty of 1783, concerning the protectorate of Russia over Georgia, and the guarantee of the sovereignty and autonomy of the latter. At the same time the very anclent Georgian Church was deprived simply by decree of a tale power of the possibility of exercising her autocephaly. "I wish." wrote Emperor Paul I in 1801. "that Georgia be a department, and therefore place her immediately in relations with the senate, and in all that concerns her ecclesiastical affairs, with the Synod." I 1811, by receipt of Emperor Alexander I, the Cathollcos.Patriarch i Antonius 11 was "convoked" to Russia. where he died." After his death the Georgian Church was not allowed to proceed to the election of a CathollcosPatriarch, but a Government General of the Russian Synod was sent out from St. Petersburg with the title of Exarch of Georgia, to rule the most ancient autocephalous Church of Georgia. It is not our purpose to criticize the motives of Emperor Paul I, and, beyond saying that he evidently thought that he was doing his l~est for his. 'This rescript (June 10, 1911) actually stated that the dignity of the Cathollcos was not compatible with the authority of the Russlan Holy Synod.
!NATIONAL REPUBLI0 OF *GEORGIA

-empL we shall only remark that his order concerning the Georgian Church, -being the decree of a lc power, was devoid of all canonical (ecclesiastical) Importance. Therefore the ancient autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia (as we have already said) was not deprived ot her autocephaly, but only of the physical possibility of exercising It, and remained, as she always had been, autocephaous. In fact, the Russian bishops who, in execution of an irregular and anticanonical decree of the lalc power, Interfered in the government of the autocephalous Orthodox Georgian Church committed a grave offense against the laws of the church. The exarchate of the synod of the Russian Church In Georgia was, during the whoje time of its existence (over a hundred years), the instrument of the Russion Government for the carrying out of a definitive State policy In the Caucasus, hut we will refrain from any judgment of the work of the exarchate in this connection, firstly, because It was precisely for the carrying out of this policy that it was created by the Russian Government, and secondly, because the very existence of a synodal exarchate over the Georgian church being illegal and anticanonlcal, there Is no occasion to approach its deeds from the point of view of legality or of justice. A few examples, however, will give some Idea of the exarchal rgirme to which the Georgian Church was obliged to submit: Some time after the enforcement of the exarchal tutelage over the Church of Georgia, her property, valued at over a hundred million golden rubles, was confiscated, the Georgian language was systematically suppressed and replaced by Slavonic, although the congregation understood not a word of it; the beautiful ancient Georgian Church music-being considered to resemble the bleating of a goat " -- was replaced by Slavonic chants, incomprehensible to the congregation; the Georgian bishops were exiled, etc. The rule of the Russian synod over the Georgian Church was also exceedingly unprofitable for the latter-for instance, with the permission of the Exarch Euseblus, a very rare eleventh-century text of the Gc.,pel was taken from the monastery of Gelati, stripped of its precious stones, and returned with false ones; from the Cathedral of Sion very great quantities of precious stones were taken away; the same was done with the jewels belonging to the Patriarchal Cathedral of Mtskheta, and the monasteries of Alaverdi and Bodbi. The old historical sacred books and manuscripts, with artistic miniatures and illuminations, were carried off; the famous image of the Virgin (valued at 50,000 golden rubles) was taken away from the Castle Church of Metekhl In Tiflis. By order of the Exarch Palladus, Mr. Sabingus took the best of the Georgian holy Images, under pretext of restoring them, and despoiled them of their jewels. There was also systematic repression of the Georgian bishops and high clergy for a peaceful and purely academic defense of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church. The exile of Bishops Kyrion and Leonidas and of the Archimandrite Ambrose are but typical Incidents of this lamentable period in the history of the Georgian Church. But, to the great credit of the Georgian clergy, it must be said that, however high they held the banker of the autocephaly of their church, they never protested in such form as could damage the interests and prestige of orthodoxy in the Caucasus, where so many different religions and confessional interests clash. On the contrary, while denying the right of the Russian synod to usurp the prerogatives of the autocephalous Georgian church, the Georgian clergy-in all that could serve the cause of the extension and strengthening of orthodoxy In the Caucasus--gave their energy to common action with the Russian clergy: As examples of this, the missionary propaganda among the Osset Highlanders (begun under King David the Reconstructor, in the twelfth century, and continued in the eighteenth century by Bishop John of Manglissi and others) was carried on by the Georgian clergy under and In cooperation with the synodal exarchate. The most decisive form of protest against the Illegal r6gime to which the Georgian Church was subjected was the appeal addressed by the Georgian episcopate, clergy, and laity to the ecumenical patriarch In 1912. when the oppression of the Georgian bishops and higher clergy took the character of real persecution. In this appeal the Georgian Church begged the ecumenical patriarch to defend her violated rights. ISee the letter of March 25, 1804, addressed by the commander In chief of the Huselan armies in Georgia to the Catholicoa-Patrlarch Antonlus Ii. (" Acts of the Caucasian Archeographical Commission," Vol. II, p. 268.)
WATIONAI, REPUI3JjI
OF GOBOGI&
In 1906, In connection with the political and moral crisis which ,Russia was then experiencing, the question of the convocation of a council of the Russian Church came up. A special preliminary commission, under the direction of the synod, was created to prepare material for this council. However strong was the desire of the synod and of the government to eliminate the question of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church, they were obliged, nevertheless, to Include this question in the program of the preliminary commission, creating a special subcommisslon ad hoe. The Georgian bishops, animated by the spirit of Christian peace and love, and hoping in this way perhaps to obtain the restoration of the rights of their church, decided to take part in the meetings of the preliminary commission, and to defend therein the interests of the Georgian Church; they were assisted by Professors Marr and Toagarell, the greatest authorities on Georgian history. But everything was done to obstruct the discussion of the question of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church In the preliminary commission, and the Georgian delegation withdrew from it. At the end of February, 1917, the change In the Russian Government took place. By a declaration issued March 12, 1917, by the Georgian episcopate, clergy, and laity the Orthodox Church of Georgia returned to her autocephalous exlstence. On March 27 the Russian provisional government published the law "Corcerning the regulation of the Jurldicial consequences relative to the reestabitshment of the autocephaly of the Ancient Orthodox Church of Georgia," by whifh law the Russian state power restored to the Orthodox Church of Georgia the power of exercising her ancient autocephaly. On July 26, 1917, were published the "Temporary rules concerning the situation of the Georgian Church In the Russian state." As stated at the beginning of this article, these two laws of the provisional government created a regime of coexistence in the Russian state of two orthodox churches-the Russian and the Georgian---conserving, pending the convocation of the Russian Constituent Assembly, the control of the government over the confessional organizations existing under the Empire. But the law of March 27, as well as the "Temporary rules" of July 26, were the result of a compromise between a 'sincere desire to reestablish the rights of the Georgian Church and the fear of changing too radically the order of things which had, de facto, resulted from its hundred years' enforced subjection to the Russian Synod. Being the result of a compromise, these two laws presented considerable drawbacks and Internal contradictions; while proclaiming the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the Orthodox Georgian Church, and Intending to restore her status quo ante, they gave the principles which the proclaimed and In. complete and Irregular embodiment. Evidently desiring to avoid dissension regarding settlement of territorial limits between the Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches In Transcaucasla, and not wanting to give any territorial basis whatever to the national aspirations of the Georgians, the provisional government, rather unexpectedly, granted to the Georgian Church (which they were In principle reestablishing in Its rights) a species of autocephaly quite new to this church, and utterly unknown to orthodox canonical law-a national, nonterritorial autocepbaly.0 The inconsistency of this system, from the logical as well as from the canonlal point of view, Is' evident. From the logli.al, because the reestablilshiment of her status quo ante, such as existed before the Intervention of the Russian laic power, being intended, the Georgian Church, being territorial, posses.sed a territory within which she ought to have been reestablished. And from the canonical, because this expedient created a situation directly contrary to the fundamental principles of orthodox canon law, inasmuch as it permitted the extension over the same territory of two autocephalous orthodox authorities the Russian and the Georgian Churches. The intervention of one bishop In the diocese (territorial domain) of a fellow-bishop, or the Interference of any ecclesiastical authority (Metropolitan, Patriarch,' or Synod) In the territorial domain of an equal and corresponding * Altering the ancient title of the head of the Georian Church, "Cathollcos-Patrlarch ef all/eorgia," to "Catholicos-Patriarch of all the Georgians" (art. 5 of the "Temporary ue) 'lerUSeveral dioceses form a composed diocese. the Metropoly of Patriarchate, over which extends the jurisdiction of the senior bishop. the Metropolitan. or, higher. in the limits of a local church, the Patriarch or Synod. 96153-26----12
NATIONAL RBPUBL1O OF GEORGIA ecclesiastical authority, is most strictly prohibited by the holy canons (" there shall not be two bishops in one town"). At the same time, from a lay point of view, If the basis of the organization of the Orthodox Churches is a territorial unity-the diocese-the extension over the same territory of the Jurisdiction of two t lual and mutually Independent ecclesiastical e'thoritles of the same rellgon Is incomprehensible, and suggests a difference In con. fession or a seum. The Orthodox Church admits exceptions to this fundamental rule only In regard to the legations of one patriarch or head of a church on the territory of another autocephalous church, and also sometimes for single parishes or monasteries, for local or historical reasons. The existence of a whole nonterritorial, local church Is utterly unknown to canon law. The holy canons, as we have said, condemn all Infraction of the territorial principle, (principle of the territorial sovereignty of the bishop) which Is the basis of orthodox church organization. The general danger of these Infractions lies in the natioual feeling carried out too far In church matters there, where different national interest and arpiratons clash, and the Orthodox Church, has, In 1872, clearly defined her point of view on this subject (in regard to the Bulgarian Schism): the national principle of church administration-leading the confusion of the Jurisdiction of several orthodox bishops who would, according to this principle, rule' people of different nationalities on the some territory (as the Bulgarians would have it)-has been severaly condemned as a false doctrine (Philetism). , le laws of the provisional government, however, being the acts of a laic poWer, were absolutely devoid of any canonical Importance, and had meaning only so far as by them the Russian State power withdrew the forcible and anticanonical pressure by which It had a hundred years before deprived the Orthodox Georgian Church of the power tO exercise her autocephalous rights, and In as far as they reestablished her status quo ante. The Georgian Church, animated by the desire to regulate her situation in the spirit of Christian peace and love, accepted--even In the defective way In which It was given to her-the possibility of exercising her rights, taking into consideration the temporary character of the laws of the provisional government. In September, 1917, the council of the Orthodox Church of Georgia assembled. This council confirmed the declaration of March 12 and the acts of the temporary government of the Georgian Church, established the foundation of her organization, elaborated and adopted her canonical constitution, and elected as catholicos patriarch the Bishop Kyrion. who after the confirmation of his election by the Russian State power (according to article 6 of the "temporary rules") ascended on October 1 of the same year to the apostolic cathollcosal and patriarchal throne of Mtskheta and all Georgia under the name of KX.'ron II. The canonical head of the Russian Church-the holy synod-preserved a complete silence on the question of Georgian autocephaly, not protesting In any way whatever against Its Just reestablishment or against the laws of the provisional government concerning this question. Meanwhile the political horizon 46f Russia was becoming heavily clouded. In October the council of the Russian Church assembled in Moscow, and had scarcely been opened when the Bolshevik coup d'etat took place, and it had to continue Its work in a city already occupied by them. In spite of that it completed the great work of reorganizing the ecclesiastical government of the Russian Orthodox Church, and having reestablished the patriarchical form of church government elected as patriarch the Metropolitan Tikhon, who was enthroned on February 21, 1918. It should be noted that the council of the Russian Church preserved a silence as complete as did the holy synod In regard to the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church. About a month, however, after ascending the Russian patriarchal throne the Patriarch Tikhon saw fit to address to the the Georgian cathollcos patriarch an epistle against the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church.
NA
ONAL BeUELTO OF OORGIA,
169
In this epistle the Patriarch Tikhon quoted extracts from the rules of the church In condemnation of insubordination on the part of bishops toward their hierarchical superiors and applied them to the reestablishment of the autocephaly of the Georgian Church (?). The Patriarch Tikhon thus accused the Georgian bishops of Insubordination to the Russian exarch. The publication of this epistle was all the more unexpected In that both the holy synod and the council of the Russian Church had been passive on this question. At the same time the Russian clergy In the Caucasus began to spread rumors to the effect that the orthodox patriarchs of the east, notably the ecumenical patriarch, "did not recognize" the autocephaly of the Georgian Church. Although there was no question of recognizing a new autocephaly, as this was only a case of the reestablishment of an ancient and already universally recognized autocephaly, and of the abolition of the anticanonical exarchal rule, the catholicos patriarch of Georgia charged Mr. Gogolachvill to interview the Metropolitan Dorotheos, then locum-tenens of the ecumenical-patriarchal throne. During the audience granted to Mr. Gogolachviii the locum tenens, as was only to be expected, catagorically denied the above-mentioned rumor. The Georgian Church did not consider It possible to enter into discussion with the Russian patriarch on the clear and simple question of the reestablishiment of her canonical rights, and therefore left the epistle of Patriarch Tikhon unanswered. The present organization of the Orthodox Church of Georgia as established by her last council may be summarized as follows: The plenitude of the ecclesiastical power In the Georgian Church belongs to her council, which meets periodically, and which rules the church by the medium of the catholicos patriarch, elected for life by the council. The catholicos patriarch exercises his power in conjunction with the catholicosal council, which concentrates within itself the representation of the episcopate, clergy, and laity. The ecclesiastical-judicial power Is exercised by the catholicos patriarch through the intermediary of the catholicosal tribunal. The catholicos patriarch renders account of his government to the council of the Orthodox Church of Georgia. The election of the catholicos patriarch, as well as the nomination of the members of the cathollcosal council and tribunal, together with the functioning of these bodies, are regulated by the fundamental laws established by the council of the Orthodox Church of Georgia. The Georgian Church Is divided into1. The Metropoly of Tiflis (with the auxiliary bishops of Gori and Alaverdl). 2. The Metropoly of Kutais. 3. The Metropoly of Tjkondidi. 4. The Archbishopric of BitJvInta and Abkhasia. Pending the decision of the question of the administration the Russian parishes founded under the exarchate, these parishes, by common consent of the Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches. remain under the administration of the Russian bishop residing in Bakou (eastern Caucasus). The Catholicos Patriarch Kyrlon II died in the summer of 1918. In his place the council of the Georgian Church elected as catholicos patriprch Leonidas, Metropolitan of Tiflis. Meantime the political life of the Georgian nation was rapidly developing. In 1918 (May 20) the Independence of the Georgian state was reestablished. In March, 1919, met the Constituent Assembly of Georgia. One of the most important of the legislative acts passed by this assembly was the law of the separation of the church from the State. In 1921 (January 27) the powers recognized de jure the independence of Georgia, whose international status was thus definitely regulated. This independence had already before been recognized by Soviet Russia, which had concluded a treaty with Georgia (May 7, 1920). In contempt of this treaty the Russian Soviet troops in February, 1921, without any pretext and without a declaration of war, crossed the Georgian frontiers in overwhelming numbers, and, notwithstanding the desperate resistance of the Georgian Army and nation, occupied the territory of the Georgian Republic.
170
rAVOWA 4 RBLPUL1O OF
oQAoR1A
The National Government of Georgia, appointed by the Constitueat Assembly and recognied by the powers, were obliged to withdraw from Georgia and to continue abroad their efforts for the liberation of their country from foreign *Mtary occupation. The Catholicos-Patriarch Leonidas 1, as the good shepherd who leaves not bis flock, remained in occupied Tiflis, where he died In the summer of 1921, the victim of an epidemic of cholera imported by the Russian Bolshevik troop& The Catholieos-Patriarch Ambrose I, elected in his stead by the council of the Georgian Church, seeing that the only salvation of his peole lay in their liberation from foreign military occupation, fearlessly addressed (February 7, 1922), from occupied Tiflis, a letter to the conference of Genoa, In which he exposed the tragedy of the Georgian nation, demanding the withdrawal of the Bolshevik troops. The sorely tried Georgian nation has not yet drained the chalice of her bitter suffering& In these civilized times she has fallen victim to an invasion unsurpassed In barbarity by those of the Mongols and Tartars; but God has allowed her to face the trial of this invasion with her national church firmly reestablished in her ancient rights and with a great Georgian patriot at her head. May God grant that to-day, as in ages past, the Georgian Church may still be the strength and stay of her nation, and show herself to be the self-same church which for long ventures has given to the people of ancient Colchis the force to carry through countless trials the Golden Fleece of their spiritual and national culture.
APPENDIX NO. 4
CoNsTITUTION or GEORGIA
(Adopted by the constituent assembly February 22, 1921) Below are published two documents, constituting the fundamental laws of the Republic of Georgia; the act of independence of the Repubile of Georgia and its constitution. The act of Independence was proclaimed by the Georgian National Council at Tfilis on May 26, 1918, and was confirmed by the constituent assembly elected by equal, universal, secret, and proportional suffrage of the citizens of both sexes at Its first session of March 12, 1919. At the same session the constituent assembly entrusted a commission with the work of working out the plan of the constitution of the Republic, giving a judicial form to the political organization, which existed already, de facto, in the institutions and constitutional practice followed In Georgia. This achieved Its object and finished its work toward the end of 1920. The definite text of the constitution was voted on by the constituent assembly on February 22, 1921, so that the Republic had already been attacked by the army of Soviet Russia. PAis, February,1922. The constituent assembly of Georgia. elected by citizens of both sexes, according to the direct, equal, universal, secret, and proportional electoral system, at its first sitting of March 12, 1919, proclaims before the world and history, that it fully confirms and approves the act of the Independence of Georgia, declared at Tiflis by the Georgian National Council, May 26, 1918.
ACT OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF GEORGIA
For several centuries Georgia existed as a free and independent state. At the end of the eighteenth century Georgia voluntarily allied herself with Russia, with the stipulation that the latter should protect her against enemies from without. In the course of the great Russian. revolution conditio-i arose which resulted In the disorganization of the entire military front I the abandonment of Transcaucasia by the Russian armies. Thus. left to their own devices, Georgia, and with her all Transcaucasia, took into their hands the direction of their affairs, creating the necessary organs for this purpose; but under pressure from exterior forces the links which united Transcaucasian nationalities were broken and the political unity of Transcaucasla was thus dissolved. The present position of the Georgian nation makes it Imperatively necessary that Georgia should create a political organization of her own in order that she may escape from the yoke of her enemies and lay a solid foundation for her free development. Accordingly the Georgian National Council, elected by the National Assembly of Georgia on November 22 (December 5). 1917, declares: 1. In future the Georgian people will hold sovereign power, and Georgia will be a State enjoying all the rights of a free and independent State. 2. Independent Georgia's form of political organization will be a democratic Republic. 3. In case of International conflicts, Georgia will always remain neutral. 4. The Georgian democratic Republic will apply itself to establishing friendly relations with all nations, and especially with neighboring nationalities and States. 5. The democratic Georgian Republe guarantees to all citizens within its territory all civil and political rights without distinction of nationality, religion, social position, or sex.
172
6. The democratic Georgian Republic offers to all inhabitants of its territory a wide field for free development. 7. Until the convocation of the constituent assembly, the National Council, with the addition of representatives of the minorities and the provisional government responsible to the National Council, is at the head of all Georgian administration. FIRST CHAPT-gQZNEZAL BAsIs First article. Georgia is a state; free, independent, and indivisible. The permanent and unchangeable form of its political constitution is the democratic Republic. 2. The capital of Georgia Is Tiflis. 3. The official language of Georgia is the Georgian language. 4. The flag of the Georgian Republic is of carmoisine color (dyed dogberry) with one black and one white stripe. The seal of the Georgian Republic is the effigy of Georges-La-Blane mounted on a horse, surmounted by seven actres. 5. The laws and decrees only enter into force after they have been published In the regular manner. 6. The territory of the state may neither be ceded, divided, nor sold. The enlargement of the territory or the rectifications of the frontiers which may be contested is only possible by virtue of a law. 7. The administrative division and the appointing or the alteration of the autonomous boundaries (limits) can only be done by the legislative law. 8. The constitution is the supreme law of the state. Any law, any decree, any ordinance, or decision which is in contradiction with the principles or the spirit of the constitution can not be promulgated. All the powers of the state are held to fulfill the constitution and to apply Its principles, as well in the legislative domain as in the administration. 9. The laws and decrees previous to the constitution remain in force, if they are not in contradiction to the constitution and Its principles. 10. The present constitution remains in force permanently and uninterrupted, except in cases provided for in the constitution itself. 11. After the adoption of the contitution the constituent assembly shall publish It with the signatures of its members.
SECOND CHAPTER-OF THE RIOHT OF THE INDIGENE
12. The Georgian nationality is acquired by birth, by marriage, or by natural. Ization. 13. A Georgian citizen can not be at the same time a citizen of any other state. 14. A Georgian citizen can not renounce his nationality except after having fulfilled all his obligations to the state. 15. The detailed conditions of the acquisition and the 7oss of the rights of the indigenes are determined by law.
THIRD CHAPTER-RIOHTS OF CITIZENS
16. All citizens are equal before the law. 17. There is no distinction of class. 18. No titles, except degrees of the universities. shall be conferred. Decora. tions are abolished; distinctive marks may be conferred by reason of war. 19. Capital punishment is abolished. 20. Nobody can be condemned except by way of the judiciary, with tile exception of disciplinary punishments provided for by law. 21. All citizens are Judged by the same form of procedure. 22. Every person enjoys individual inviolability. Nobody can be arrested or deprived of his liberty in any other manner, nor submitted to search except by warrant of a court of justice or by the medium of inquiry. 23. The administration can only proceed with the arrest on its own Initiative on the following cases: (a) When the guilty person is surprised in the very act. (b) When the guilty person is indicted on the place of the crime by the victim or by a witness. (c) When any object establishing the guilt of the prisoner is found upon his person, or when incontestable signs or traces of the crime are found upon his person or his domicile.
173
24. The arrest of culprits by private individuis is lawful when they surprise him in the very act of crime and when there is cause of fear of escape before the arrival of the agents of the public forces. 25. Any person arrested by order of the judiciary or administrative forces must be brought before the nearest court within 24 hours; in cases where the court is too far away in order to bring a culprit before it within that period, it may be prolonged, without, however, exceeding 48 hours. 20, The court must proceed Immediately, in no case later than 24 hours, to interrogate the prisoner. After this it may ordainj by written order, either the further detention of the culprit or his immediate release.27. The judicial authorities are obliged, in cases where It happens that a person has been arrested in violation of the above-mentioned rules, to look Immediately into the case and to give immediate orders either for his release or to keep him in custody. 28. The domicile of a citizen is inviolable, and searches are only authorized in cases provided for by law. 29. Private correspondence is Inviolable and can only be seized and examined in pursuance of a Judgment of the court. 30. Every citizen has the right of moving and selecting his own residence; there is no restriction of this right except by order of the court of Justice. 31. Every citizen enjoys full liberty of conscience. He can not be prosecuted nor have restrictions brought upon his political or civil rights for reason of his religion or convictions. Everybody has the right to profess his own religion, to change same, or not to have any religious creed. No person has the right to evade his political or civil obligations by calling upon his religion or convictions except in case provided by law. The actions of a religious character modify In no way the civil rights or position of anybody. 32. Every citizen has the right to express his opinions, to propagate them verbally, by the public press, or by any other means without previous authority of the government. In this case he is only responsible to the court of justice for any crime committed. 33. The citizens of Georgia have the right of public assembly without arms, either Indoors or In the open air. 34. The administration has the right to close any meeting If It becomes unlawful. 35. The citizens of the Georgian Republic have the right to form professional or other societies without previous authority of the government, provided ttat their object is not forbidden by law. The dissolution of such societies Is only possible by order of a court of law. 36. The free development of the Intellectual professions, commercial, lidustrial, and agricultural pursuits Is guaranteed by the Republic. 37. The right of Individual or collective petition Is assured. 38. Workmen have the right to strike. 39. The citizens of both series enjoy equal political, civil economic, and family rights. 40. Marriage is based on equal rights and upon mutual consent of husband and wife. The form and rules of marriage are determined by law. Children born in or out of wedlock have the same rights and duties. The mother has the right to seek and prove the paternity of a natural child by way of the courts, and this child has the same right to seek and prove the paternity. 41. No fugitive for political reasons and who takes refuge in this Republic can be extradited. 42. All official and private persons guilty of infractions of the above laws aimed at the rights of the citizens will be prosecuted according to the penal code. 43. In case of sedition within the country or In case of war, parliament has the right to suspend temporarily the constitutional guaranties contained In articles 19, 22, 25, 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, and 38; in case of war the guaranties contained in article 21 may also be suspended, provided the accused be pot amenable to justice of a council of war in the military zone. 44. When parliament is not in session the government has the right on its own responsibility to suspend the constitutional guaraptles above mentioned. But in this case it is obliged to convoke parliament immediately and to submit its decision. 45. In case of serious epidemics the government has the right to suspend temporarily the constitutional guaranties in articles 22, 25, 20, and 30, in so far as this act Is necessary to fight the epitlemic.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF *GEORGIA 46. The rights and guaranties enumerated in the constitution do not exclude eter rights and guaranties, although not yet formulated, but nevertheless run along the principles established by the conbtitution.
FOURTH CHrAPTE-PRLIAMENT
46. The representative body of the Georgian Republic Is the parliament of Georgia, composed of deputies elected by universal, equal, direct, secret, and pteporttonal voting. Every citizen, without distinctJou of sex, enjoying all his rights and being over 20 years old has the right r',, %.ke part in the elections. The parliament Is elected for three years. 4T. The rules of a legislative election ase laid down by a special law. 48. Members of parliament are not held responsible for opinions expressed by them during the term of their office. The person of a member of parliament -is inviolable. He can neither- be arrested nor Indicted without consent of parliament. An exception Is made in the case of "flagrante delicto," which must be brought Immediately to the knowledge of parliament. A member arrested or indicted must be released Immediately If parliament so desires. 49. Members of parliament may refuse to bear witness about facts which may have been Intrusted to them In their quality of deputies. Tl.ls right may be invoked even after the expiration of their term of office, 50. Members of parliament receive a: Indemnity fixed by law. 51. The cases of ineompatability between the office of deputy and the exercise of a public office or whatsoever profession shall be determined by law. 52. The sovereignty belongs to the entire nation. Parliament exercises this sovereignty within the limits fixed by the constitution. 53. Parliament votes on the laws, decrees, and decisions; the manner of their publication shall be fixed by a special law. 54. The powers of parliament are the following: (a) Legislation. (b) Supreme direction of the army of the Republic and in general of all the armed forces. (o) ieclaratlon of war. (d) Ratification of treaties of peace, commerce, or other treaties with foreign powers. (e) The right of amnesty. (f) Making of the budget. (g) The right to make Interior or foreign loans. (h) Appointment of officials as provided by the constitution. (4) General control of the executive power. 55. The sessions of parliament are public; but parliament has the right by special decision to hold entire or partial sessions behind closed doors. 56. Parliament decides Itself the validity of the election of Its members and resolves on all questions relative thereto. 57. All decisions of parliament are made by a simple majority of votes, unless another modus has been adopted by law or by regulation. 568. The openings of parliamentary sessions necessitates the presence of at least half of the total number of deputies. 59. Parliament has the right to Interpellate the Government and to question It. Interpellations and questions are subject to rules determined by law or by regulation. Parliament has the right to nominate commissions of Inquiry. 60. The parliament fixes Itself by regulation the procedure of its discussions. 61. The annual sessions of the parliament begin on the first Sunday of November. The elections for the renewal of the parliament take place in the autumn, simultaneously In the entire Republic, and in time to permit the newly elected mer:bers to be present at the opening of parliament. 62. The operations of the parliament can only be suspended by parliament Itself. During the Interruptions In the work of the parliament the right to assemble this latter In extraordinary cases bclongs to the Government or to the bureau of the parliament. The assembly of the parliament Is obligatory if one quarter of the number of deputies desires it. 6.3. The right of initiative belongs to: (a) Any member of parliament. (b) Any group of 5,000 electors.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEODGIA
175
64. Parliament is obliged to submit any new law to a popular referendum if 80,000 electors require It in writing. The rules of a referendum are determined
by law.
65. Parliament elects its bureau yearly.
FznM CHaPE--EXMCUxVa POWER 66. The executive power belongs to the Government of the Republic. 67. The President of the Government is elected by parliament for the period of one year. The same President can only be reelected once. 68. The other ministers, members of the Government, are appointed by the President from among the citizens Who have the right tc take part in parliamentary elections. 69. Mtembers of the government may not fill any other office or profession. They may only be members of parliament or of the councils of self-government. 70. The president of the government is the supreme representative of the Republic. He appoints the representatives of Georgia to other powers, and it is to him that the representatives of foreign powers are accredited. In the absence of a government decision which may find itself obstructed, the president may by exceptional right have recourse to the armed forces of the Republic, but he must Inform parliament immediately. The ordinances of laws and by-laws relative thereto emanate from the president of the government, who, however, does not have the right to arrest the action of the laws or to hinder its execution. The president of the government has the right to order the extraordinary control of public or local administrations, or the revision of particular cases, according to the rules determined by law. The president has no other rights except those conferred on him by the constitution. 71. The president of the government has a lieutenant. In the absence of the president hi attributes devolve upon his lieutenant. 72. The general rights and duties of government are: (a) To assure the supreme direction of the affairs of the Republic according to its laws. (b) To watch over the application of the Republic and the execution of its laws. (c) To put before parliament its plans for laws, as well as its conclusions about plans of laws emanating from the parliament or from the people. (d) To defend the external interests of the Republic. (e) To safeguard the Republic from external dangers and to defend itN independence. (f) To insure security and order in the interior of the country. If unforeseen circumstances require it, to mobilize the armed forces of the country, but not for any period longer than 21 days. This period can only be prolonged by consent of parliament. (g) To manage the finances, to issue money according to law, and to submit annually to parliament a budget of revenue and expenses of the State. (h) To give an account to parliament of Its work and to submit at least once a year a report about the internal and external situation of Georgia. To present also to parliament any special reports if desired. (i) To acquit Itself of all obligations Imposed by parliament or by law. 73. The members of the government share in the directions of the affairs of the Republic, which do not depend directly on the president. Each member of the government directs independently, and under sole, personal responsibility to parliament, the department confided to him. He must resign as soon as he loses the confidence of parliament. A minister has only the right to vote in parliament If he is a member. The president of the government is responsible to parliament for the general politics. He is obliged to submit to the decisions of parliament and to execute the same, if necessary to change the ministers or even to re-form the entire cabinet. 74. Every member of government has the right to be present at the sessions of parliament and at the meetings of special commissions. Parliament, as well as the commissions, are obliged to listen to the minister if he requires it. On his part the minister is also obliged to present himself, if required, before parliament or commissions, and to furnish explanations. 75. The president and the government are responsible, under penalties, for any violation of the constitution; but only the president may indict them before a court of law. Members of the government are Judged as provided for by the common law.
NATIONiAL BRPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
SIXTH CHAP~x-4UerICZ
76. The supreme court of Georgia is the senate elected by parliament and has the following functions: (a) To watch over the strict enforcement of the law. (b) To find out justice in the capacity of a court of cassation. 77. Civil and criminal matters and administrative debatable matters belong to the department of permanent tribunals. The organization, jurisdiction, and competence of these tribunals are determined by law. . 78. The judiciary power Is independent and only obeys the law. Justice is rendered in the name of the democratic Republic of Georgia. 79. The verdicts pronbunced by the tribunals can not be annulled, modified, or suspended by any legislative, administrative, or executive body. 80. The bearings of the courts are public; in certain cases, where the morale or public security requires it, courts can be held behind closed doors. 81. All serious matters belong to the penal jurisdiction, as well as political matters, and offenses of the press are submitted to a jury. 82. Judges are elected for a fixed period. The rules of such elections as well as the conditions to which the judges have to submit are determined by law. 83. Except by determination of the court, judges can not be the object of any change contrary to their wishes. They can only be temporarily dismissed, if they are arraigned by justice or if their case is under consideration. Their definite dismissal can only take place by judgment of the court.
SEVENTH CHAPTER-FINANCES OF THE STATE
84. No tax can be Instituted or levied If not previously sanctioned by parliament. (NoT.-The right of bodies of self-government to levy taxes is determined by special laws.) 85. Nobody can be exempted from the taxes of the state if not sanctioned by law. 86. No sum for retiring pensions, compensations, or whatsoever expense may be deducted from the treasury of the state except conforming to the law. 87. No loans of State nor any other financial obligation may be contracted without the authorization of parliament. 88. All revenues and all expenses of the state must appear in the budget. The budget must be presented every year to parliament for its approval. 89. If parliament does not get to voting the budget for the commencement of the budget year, the government can be authorized by parliament until the approval of the budget to cover the expenses of the states on the basis of the budget of the previous year. 90. No transfer of expenses of one chapter of the budget to another may be made without authority of parliament.
CHAPTER EIoHT-CONTROL OF TIlE STATE
91. The control of the state is performed as follows: (a) Rigorous execution of the budget of state. (M) All revenues and expenses of the state. (c) The accounts and balance sheets of the different ministerial departments. (4) The finances of the bodies of the local self-government. 92. The controller of the state is elected by parliament. Ile is not in the cabinet, but has all the rights of a minister of state and is only responsible to parliament. He gives an account of his office every year. 93. The organization of the control and the rules of its application are determined by law.
NINTH CHAPTER-NATIONAL DEFENSE
94. Every citizen 95. The object of territory. 90. The duration determined by law. 97. The effective parliament.
Is compelled to do military service according to the law. the military organization is to defend the republic and its of military service and the organization of the forces is force of the recruiting contingent i; fixed every year by

TENTH C.HAPTER--SEL-GoVEBNMENT
177
98. The institutions of self-government being at the same time local administrative bodies are charged with the direction of economic and educational affairs within the limits of their territory. 99. The organizations of self-governmenti its rights and duties as well as the manner of their administration are fixed by law. 100. The institutions of self-government have the right to make by-laws for public administration conforming to the law. 101. The self-government is elected by secret, proportional, equal, and universal suffrage. 102. The by-laws and orders of the self-government can only be changed by legal manner. 103. The central bodies of the government have the right to suspend the bylaws and orders of self-government when they are contrary to law, but such matters must immediately be brought before a legal power. The manner and conditions of such suspensions are determined by law. 104. The self-government depends on the central bodies of government for the direction of its general administration. 105. The cases where the resolutions of self-government must be approved by Government are determined by law. 106. The institutions of self-government have their own budget according to a special law.
ELEVENTH CHAPTER-AUTONOMOUS ADMINISTRATION
107. Abkhasle (district of Soukhoum), Georgia Musulmane (district of Batoum), and Zakhathala (district of Zakhatala), which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, enjoy an autonomy in the administration of their affairs. 108. The statute concerning the autonomy of the districts mtntioned in the previous article will be the object of special legislation.
TWELFTH CHAPTEM-UBLIC INSTRUCTION AND SCHOOLS
109. TIhe arts and sciences and their instruction are free, and it is the duty of the State to protect them and to help in their development. 110. Elementary instruction is gratuitous, general, and obligatory. The scholastic system is an organic whole where primary education serves as basis for secondary and for superior teaching. The teaching is in all its aspects laical. 111. The state must see to it that Indigent children have free schooling food, clothing, and school materials. The government and the bodies of self-government must set aside yearly from their resources a certain sum for the defrayal of these expenses. 112. Private schols are subject to the general school laws.
THIRTEENTII CIIAPTER-SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RIGTS
113. The Republic sees to it that all Its citizens have dignified existence. 114. Forced expropriation or restriction of private enterprise can only take place in virtue of a special law, which determines their manner, and only for the needs of the state and for public utility. The owners of property who have been expropriated will be Indemnified, provided there are no dispositions to the contrary made by law. 115. The Republic has its own commercial and industrial organization. Its principal object is to develop this organization and to create a single and complete system of social economy. The Republic will aid the bodies of selfgovernment in the development and strengthening of similar economic organizations. The government has the right to socialize by legislature the commercial, industrial, and agricultural enterprises which may be suitable for this purpose. 116. The State watches particularly against the private exploitation of the work of small producers, of the agricultural, the workmen, and the homeworker. The Republic will also give its special attention to the prosperity of agriculture. The proprietor of land has a duty toward society to cultivate the same to get the best possible results.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 117. The existence of the State is based on work, and it is therefore a particular duty of same to protect same. 118. The laws of the Republic intrust the bodies of self-government with the work of establishing labor exchanges, employment agencies, and similar institutions which shall keep statistics of unemployed persons an:1 assist them to obtain work. The representatives of workers' unions to the extent of half, at least, shall take part in the central direction of these institutions. 119. Citizens who are out of work shall have the assistance of insurance and help to procure work for them. 120. Any citizen who is incapacitated from work by age, sickness, or other causes and having neither by law or custom a claim of support from his heir, curator, or any private or public institution, and being without means of existence, has the right to have assistance from the State by way of insurance or other methods. This assistance is also given by the State in cases where the heir or curator are not in a position to care for the invalid. 121. Any citizen incapacitated from work by age, mutilation, or other causes will receive in the way of insurance an assistance proportionate to his salary. The insurance capital will be raised by means of a tax levied on the employer. 122. Besides the tax mentioned in the proceeding article, a certain part of the receipts of the republic shall be annually set aside for the same object. 123. The normal duration of working time of hired help shall not be more than 48 hours per week. The worker must at the same time have a weekly respite from work of at least 42 uninterrupted hours per week. The exception to the weekly hours of work are determined by law. The fixing of the normal -time of work for agricultural laborers and season workers necessitating special working conditions are fixed by law. 124. The employment of minors under 16 years in establishments is forbldden; the working hours for minors between the ages of 10 and 18 is fixed at 6 hours per day; minors under 18 and women may not be employed in night work. 125. The Republic fixes the minimum rate of wages and establishes normal working conditions. It creates a special inspection of work and sanitary control independent of the employers. 126. The protection of female labor will be the object of a special law. The employment of women at work detrimental to maternity is forbidden.. During the time of confinement the female worker is excused from her work for at least two months without suspension of salary. It is the duty of an employer to permit his female workers to give the necessary time to their nurslings, 127. Any Infraction of the laws giving protection to labor comes within the penal code. 128. It Is incumbent on the Republic and the bodies of self-government to insure the protection of mothers and children.
FOURTEENTH CIJAPTM-RIGlITS OF ETHNICAL 1INORTius
129. It is forbidden to bring any obstacle to the free social development, economic and cutfural, of the ethnical minorities of Georgia, especially to the teaching in their mother language and the interior management of their affairs concerning their own culture. Everybody has the right to his mother tongue in writing, printing, and speaking. 130. All local ethnical minorities formed into united administration enjoy the right to group themselves and form national unions for organizing and directing their cultural matters within the limits of the constitution and the law. The local ethnical minorities which do not belong to united administrations may constitute themselves independently into an ethnical union, enjoying the competencies mentioned in this article. One is under the jurisdiction of an ethnical union for reason of the language one speaks. The cultural needs of the ethnical minorities are met by sums levied on the budget of self-government in proportion to the number interested. 131. Nobody shall be restricted in his rights, civil or political for the reason of belonging to an ethnical minority. 132. Any ethnical union may bring before a court of justice any matter in violation of the rights conferred to the minorities by the constitution or by law. 133. Any citizen of the Georglan Republie has equal rights concerning the admission to the civil or military service of the state as well as to the serv.cie of towns and communities.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOR3A
179
134. In localities of a mixed population the bodies of self-government, are obliged, with the funds at their disposal, to create a sifficlent number of schools and e.tabllshments of instruction and general education in proportion to the ethnical composition of its population. 135. Instruction In all schools belonging to an ethnical minority shall be given In the language in which Its pupils speak. 136. In a circumscription submitted to a body of self-government where the proportion of the ethnical minority exceeds 20 per cent of the whole of the citizens and where the administration of communal and state affairs run concurrently, the official language, if the minority desires it, shall be the language of the said minority. 137. Any deputy of non-Georgian origin, not knowing the official language sufficiently for expressing his opinions In parliament, may use his mother tongue, on condition that he has previously submitted to the bureau of parliament an exact translation of his speech. The application of this article shall be regulated by law.
FIFTEENTH CHAPTER---OFFICIALS OF THE STATE
138. Any Georgian citizen hai access to all the offices if he satisfies the requirements of the law. 139. An officer may be relieved of his office, or incur disciplinary punishment by order of the institution or the chief. The rules as to his definite suspension are fixed by law. 140. Every officer has the right of a pension. The terms under which an officer or his family have the benefit of a pension are fixed by law. 141. Every officer Is responsible to justice according to the principles of the common law. Any citizen has the privilege to arrain any officer who may be guilty. Any citizen has the right to be reimbursed by the state for any loss or damage caused by an officer in the exercise of the functions of his office. The proceedings and conditions of indemnification are fixed by law.
SIXTEENTH CHAPTER-RELATIONS OF STATE AND CUHVCIll
142. other. 143. 144. bodies
The state and the church are separate and independent one from the No confession or creed enjoys special privileges. It Is forbidden to make any levies on the resources of the state or the of self-government for the needs of any religious order.
EIGIITFENTH1 CJIAPTER-REVIqION OF TIE CONSTITIMON
145. The complete or partial revision of the c.nstitntlon may be deman'-cd(a) By at least one-half of the members of parliament. (M) By a group of 50,000 electors. 146. Aprolosal for the revival of the constitution can on:y le heard In parliament six months after the deposition of such proposal. 147. A proposal or plan for Ih partial or entire revisal of the constitution can only be adopted by a majority of two-thirds of the members of parliament. This proposal only comes into force after It hs received the approval of the people. 148. The alteration of the form of government of the democratic Republic of Georgia can not be made the object of the proposal of a revisal of the constitution. 149. Until the meeting of parliament the constituent assembly will act in Its place.
APPENDIX NO. 5
TREATY,
MAY 7, 192, BETWEEN Tna DEMOCBATIc REPuBLio OF GEOROIA AND
TuEc RUSSIAN SOCIALIST SOVIET FEDERATIVE REPUBLIC The democratic Republic of Georgia and the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic animated by a common desire to establish stable and peaceful relations between the two countries, In order to assure the well-being of the populations of the respective countries, have, for that purpose, decided to conclude a special treaty, and have appoluted as plenipotentiaries: The Government of the democratic Republic of Georgia, Mr. Gregoire Ouratadze, and in the Government of the Russian Socialist Soviet Republic, Mr. Leon -Mikhailovitch Karakhan, Assistant Commissar of Foreign Affairs; who after communicating to each other their- full powers, found to be in due and proper form, have agreed upon the following articles:
ARTICLE I
Based on the right proclaimed by the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic of all peoples to fully dispose of themselves to the extent of and including total withdrawal from the state of which they form a part, Russia recognizes without reservations the independence and the sovereignty of the Georgian State, and voluntarily renounces all sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with respect to the Georgian people and territory.
ARTICLE II
Based on the principles proclaimed in the foregoing Article I, Russia agrees to renounce all intervention in the internal affairs of Georgia.
ARTICLE II1
1. The state boundary between Georgia and Russit, runs from the Black Sea, along the Pacou River to Mount Akhahktcha, crosses Mount Akhakhtcha and Mount Agapet, follows the southern boundary of the former Black Sea governments, Koutals and Tiflis, to the Zakataly district and the eastern boundary of said district to the Armenian frontier. 2. All the hills situated on the above-mentioned boundary line are declared neutral until January 1, 1922. They can neither be occupied by the troops of either of the contracting parties, nor fortified by either of the said parties. 3. As regards Darial 11111, the neutralization provided for in paragraph 2 of the present article will apply to that part of the hill comprised between Balta and Kobi; to Mamisson 11111; from Zaramag to Oni; and, to all the other hills, for a distance of five verstes on each sile of the boundary line. 4. The exact direction of the state boundary between the two contracting parties will be determined by a special joint boundary commission, composed of an equal number of representatives of each party. The results of the work of this commission will be embodied in a special treaty to be con :ludcd between the two contracting parties.
ARTICLE IV
1. In addition to those parts of the Black Sea Government awarded to Georgia by the provisions of paragraph 1 of Article III of the present treaty, Itussia agrees, without reservations, to recognize as being comprised in tile Georgian State the following governments and regions of the former Rtuisian Empire: TifNin, Koutais, and Ilaboum, with til the districts forming the said govern. ments and regions, and also the Zakataly and Soukhouin districts. 2. As fast as relations are established thereafter between Georgia and states other than Russia-states already existing or that may be formed subse180
NATIONAL REPUBLIC
OV GEORGIA
181
quently-and bordering Georgia by other frontiers than those defined In Article III of the present treaty, Russia declares herself ready to recognize as belonging to Georgia such or much other part of the former vice royalty of Caucausus as may accrue to her in virtue of treaties concluded with these states.
ARTICLE V
Acceding to Russia's demand to the effect that there shall not be tolerated henceforth any military operation, quartering of troops, nor any other acts likely to create a situation on Georgian territory which might' threaten her independence or be capable, of transforming Georgia's territory into a base of operations directed against the public order there established, Georgia agrees: 1. To immediately disarm and intern in concentration camps all military or naval units, debarkments, and groups having pretentions to the rOle of Government of Russia, or any part thereof, or of states allied to Russia-as well as representatives and functloaarles, organizations, and groups seeking to overthrow the Government of Ruissia or of her allies-who may be on Georgian territory at the time of the sigi ature of the present treaty or who may subsequently enter her territory. 2. To immediately disarm and Intern the naval vessels belonging to the. organizations and groups mentioned in paragraph 1 of the present article, whhh may be in the ports of Georgia, and also any vessels, which for any reason whatsoever may be in these parts at the disposal of said organizations and groups. The provisions of paragraph 1 of the present article apply in their entirety to the crews of said vessels. 3. To hand over to Russia without charge, and without demanding any compensation, all military and naval supplies without exception, all securities and funds which may be in the possession, enjoyment, or at the disposal of the organizations and groups mentioned in paragraph 1 of the present article, and which, in accordance with paragraphs 1 and 2 of the same article, are to be placed at Georgia's disposal. By the terms of the present paragraph the following shall be considered as military and naval war materials: Vessels and other floating material; all artillery, commissary (including stocks of provisions and equipment), engineering, and aviation material in general. 4. To deliver to Russia, after disarmament, the units, organizations, and groups, as well as the crews, mentioned in paragraph 1 of the present article. Novu-Russia agrees to spare the lives of all those who may be delivered to her in accordance with the present article. 5. To take ineasures to send away from the Georgian territory comprised within the boundaries fixed by Article IV of the present treaty all troops and military detachments not forming part of the national troops of Georgia. 8. To take steps to forbid the sojourning hereafter on Georgian territory of the troops and military detachments mentioned in paragraph 5 of the present article. 7. To forbid an. persons belonging to the units, organizations, and groups enumerated in partigraphs 1 and 5 of the present article, in so far as said persons are not of Ceorgian nationality, to enter, in any capacity whatsoever, among others, as volunteers, the troops of the Government of Georgia. 8. Not to permit heneforth the formation and sojourn on her territory within the boundaries fixed In Article IV of the present treaty, of any troops and organizations pretending to the r~le of Government of Russia or any part thereof, or of the r6le f government of states allied with Russia nor any representatives and funct!onaries, organizations, and groups seeking to overthrow the Government of Russia or that of her allies; Georgia also agrees not to permit the transportation by the above-mentioned organizations, groups. representations, and functio.arics across Georgian territory, of anything that could be utilized to attack Itu-sia or her allies, and also to prohibit the sojourn in her ports and waters of vessels and other floating niaterul belonging to sail organizations, except in tite case of vessels in distrevs and other cases provided for by International law. 9. In case the organizations. groups, representatives, or ttinctionaries mentioned in the foregoing paragraph 8 of the present article should attempt to violate the interdiction stipulated in said paragraph 8, proceedings will be taken with resl*ct to tile persons m.d property that the Georgian Government
182
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GOGA
undertakeft to arrest in accordance with the obligations assumed by it in accordance with the terms of paragraph 8 of the present article, as stipulated in paragraphs 3 and 4 of the said article.
ARTICLE VI
Russia agrees not to permit on her territory the sojourn and the activity of any group or organization pretending the rdle of Government of Georgia, or any part thereof, nor of any group and organization seeking to overthrow the Government of Georgia. Russia agrees to use all her influences with her allies to the end that the groups and organizations mentioned in the present article shall not be admitted to this territory. ARTICLE VIU In order to avoid any misunderstanding, the two contracting parties agree that at the time of the execution of paragraphs 5 and 6 of Article V of the present treaty in the parts of the territory accruing to Georgia by the terms of paragraph 2 of Article IV of said treaty, after the delimitation of the frontiers of Georgia and neighboring countries other than Russia, the necessary measures -of security In these cases shall be taken by Georgia within The shortest possible time, once she shall have assumed formal exercise of her sovereignty in such or such of said territories.
ARTICLE VIII
A Joint commission, composed of an equal number of representatives of each party hereto, shall be appointed to see to the strict enforcement of Articles V and VI or the present treaty and to the delivery and reception of the persons and property stipulated in paragraphs 3 and 4 of the said Article V. The commission shall Itself determine its method of procedure. The delivery and the reception of the persons and property syelfied in paragraphs 3 and 4 of Article V of the present treaty shall be effected within a period of two months from the date of the signature of said treaty.
ARTICLE IX
1. Persons of Georgian origin, residing on Russian territory, and having reached the age of 18 years, shall have the right to choose Georgian nationality. Likewise. persons not of Georgian origin, residing on Georgian territory, and having attained the age above mentioned, shall be entitled to opt for Russian nationality. 2. The details relative to the enforcement of the present article shall be embodied In a special agreement to be concluded between the two contracting parties. 3. The nationals of the two contracting parties who desire to take advan. tage of the rights conferred on them by the provisions of the present article, shall be required to comply with the formalities to which they are subjected, within one year from the date of the coming into force of the convention mentioned In the foregoing paragraph 2.
ARTICLE X
Georgia agrees to release from penalties Imposed and from administrative or legal prosecution, all persons subject to such proceedings in Georgian territory. beca-.se of acts committed in the interest of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic, or in the interest of the Communist Party. NoTE.-Georgla agrees to release Immediately all persons Imprisoned for the above-mentioned acts.
ARTCLE XI
Each of the contracting parties agrees to recognize and to respect the flag and the arms of the other party hereto, as being the emblem of a friendly state. The designs of the flags and the aims, so well as any changes that may subsequently be made therein, shall be communicated to the respective parties through diplomatic channels.
NAT!O,)lA
REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
ARTICI XII
]m
Pending the conclusion between the two contracting parties, of a treaty of commerce, the necessary measures for which will be taken as soon as possible the economic relations between Georgia and Russia shall be regulated provisionally in accordance with the following general arrangement: 1. The two contracting parties lay down, as the basis of their commercial relations, the princlpie of the most favored nation. 2. Goods whose origin or destination Is one of the contracting parties shall not be subjected by the other party to any duty or transit tax.
ARTICLE XIII
The provisions of paragraphs 1 and 2 of the foregoing Article XII shall serve as the basis of the treaty of commerce which Is to be concluded between the contracting parties, in accordance with the terms of said Article XII.
ARTICLE XIV
Diplomatic and consular relations between Georgia and Russia shall be .established as soon as possible. Pending the conclusion by the two contracting parties of a special convention regulating the law relative to consuls of the respective contracting parties, the necessary measures for the drafting of which will be taken, the rights and obligations of said officials shall be determined by the rules In force in that connection with each of the contracting parties.
ARTICLE XV
The settlement of questions arising In the domain of public or private rights between the citizens of the two contracting parties, and the settlement of certain special questions between the two States, shall be entrusted to special Russo-Georglan Joint commissions, which shall be appointed as soon as possible after the signature of te present treaty. The composition, rights, and duties of said commissions shali be determined by special instructions drawn up for each commission as may L~e agreed upon by the two contracting parties. The jurisdiction of said commissions shall extend, among other matters, to the following: 1. Formulation of a treaty of commerce and other economic agreements. 2. Settlement of questions concerning the distribution of the archives and the disposition of curr~tit matters, administration and legal records, and social State documents in the former central institutions. 3. Settlement of the question of the method of utilization, possession, and disposition of the Batum-Bakou pipe lae in the respect to that part of it which, In virtue of Article IV of the present treaty, is situated on Georgian territory. This question shall be settled ultimately by means of a special agreement between the two contracting parties.
ARTICLE XVI
The present treaty becomes effective from the very fact of its signature on the date of such signature, without any special ratification being necessary. In witness whereof the plenipotentiaries of the two parties have with their own hands signed the present treaty and affixed thereunto their seals. Done in duplicate at Moscow on the 7th of May, 1920. Signatures: 0. OURATADZE.
L. KARAKIIAN.
APPENDIX NO. 6 (Exwpts from the booklet " PWpublique de. Udg6TW-Documente Relatifs AIa Question de I& G6orgle Devint ]a Soc1t des NatIons." Published by the Georgian Legatlon In France, Iarls, 1925. (Translated from F'r ncb.) Also note from the delegate of the National Government of Georgia to the Council of the League of Nations, relevant to the above]
Lmrna FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE GEORGIAN Di LEATION TO THE PEACE CONFERENCE TO THE EXECUTIVE COMMIrr AND TO THE ASSEMBLY OF THU LEAGUE
or
NATioNI (Assembly Document 29 (28/254/254))
Df.,oATIoN DE LA Ri-PUBLIQUE GiOROIENNA 37 RUE DE LA P tROUE, pars, 218t May, 1919. The delegation of the Georgian Republic, acting In the name of the people and the Government of Georgia, have the honor to request that Georgia be admitted to the League of Nations In accordance with the provisions of the covenant of the 28th April, 1919. N. TCHE3DzE, (Signed) President of the Georgian Delegation. LEAGUE OF NATIONS Memorandum by the secretary general. Noinxa 20, 1920. I. On May 21, 1919, the delegation of the Georgian Republic, then in Paris, asked the secretary general of the League of Nations to submit to the council and the assembly of the league a note in which it requested, In the name of the people and the Government of Georgia, the admission of this country to the League of Nations. The secretary general In his reply dated June 0, 1919, suggested that in view of the terms of Article I of the covenant the better course would be for the Georgian authorities to address, when the covenant would have come Into force, a formal request through the secretary general to the assembly for admission to the league. An extract of the Georgian note of May 21, 1919, was submitted to the council by the secretary general on April 15, 1920, Council Doctiment No. 7, and to the members of the League on June 29, 1920. II. On September 1, 1920, Georgia made a formal request to be admitted as a member of the league. Tihe text of the request is annexed to this menmorandum. (Annexe 1.) An explanatory memorandum stating further the reasons which prompted Georgia to seek admission to the league was presented by the Georgian delegation in London on September 18, 1020, and is annexed to this memorandum. (Annexe 2.) III. On May 20, 1918, the Independence of Georgia, which before was under Russian administration, was proclaimed by the national council, a provisional representative body. The text of the act by which Georgia's independence was thus proclaimed is ajonexed to this memorandum. (Annexe 3.) The attention of the assembly Is especially drawn to article 3 of this act, saying In its authentic version: "In the event of international conflict Georgia will always remain neutral." The aforementioned act was confirmed by the Georgian Constituent Assembly on March 12, 1919. The text of this confirmation is annexed to the present memorandum. (Annex 4.) IV. Georgia has been recognized "de jure" by the GoVernment of the Argentine Republic (September 13, 1919), by the S.oviet Government of Russia (May 7, 1920), ahd by the German Government (September 24, 1920). 184
185
Georgia has been recognized " d e facto" by the Governments of France, Great Britain, Italy, January 11, 1920; Japan, February 7, 1920; Belgium, August 26, 1920. Copies of the acts of recognition, authenticated on behalf of the Georgian Government, are available in the secretariat. V. Article I of the covenant of the League of Nations provides: "Any fully self-governing State, Dominion, or Colony not named in the Annex may become a member of the league if its admission Is agreed to by twothirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective guaranties of its sincere intention to observe its international obligations and shall accept such regulations as may be prescrit-ed by the league in regard to its military, naval, and air forces and armaments." In this connection it may be recalled that Georgia applied for membership of the league "with all the rights and duties thereto attached, the which are based on the covenant of the said league." (Annex 1.) It may also be stated that on May 19, 1920, the permanent advisory commission for military, naval, and air question' has been Instructed "to consider and draft regulations in accordance with article 1 of the covenant, In regard to the military, naval, and air forces and armaments of the Republic of Georgia, and to forward the report to the council on the subject." In their report to the council the commission stated that it had received from Georgia the following information: The military forces of this country consist to-day of 55,000 men and of a national guard of 00,000 volunteers. At a later date and when the independence of the Republic is no longer threatened from outside this country hopes to create a militia based more or less on the example of the Swiss militia. The commission recommends the maintenance of the existing forces, in view of the present situation. Georgia asks to be allowed to keep the naval forces she now possesses for patrol purposes: Seven light craft of less than 500 tons. The commission recommends the maintenance of this force. The commission has received no Information nor request with regard to the air forces of Georgia. It should be added that the commission also recommended that the proposed armaments should only be considered as having a provisional character and that, among other countries seeking admission, Georgia should agree to submit herself to a revision of the armaments which in the opinion of the commission can now be granted to her if this would be found necessary at a later Iate. The commission suggested that i request for revision might be made by Georgia herself; it would have to be accompanied by a statement of the new conditions on which the request would be lased. The relprt of the commission li i formed the subject of a resolution (if the council, placed before the assembly. VI. It at letter dated September 8. I20, the secretary-general suggested to the Georgian Government that the assembly might wish to hear explanations regarding questions in connection with Georgia's application for admission to the League of Nations, and that it. view thereof it might be desirable for the Georgian Government to send it representative sliecially to Geneva, when the assembly would lie meeting, or to give its agent in some capital the necessary instructions. On October 10, 1920, the Georgian delegation in London informed tie secretary-general that Georgia would lye represented - for the said purposes in Geneva, by M. E. Gueguetchkorl. vice president of the Georgian Government and minister for foreign affairs, and by .M1. Avaloff. delegate.
MEMORANDUM ON TIlE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE GEORGIAN REPUBLIC SUBMITTED BY TIlE GEORGIAN GOVERNMENT TO TIE ASSEMBLY OF TIE LEAGUE OF NATIONS TO BE HELD AT GENEVA ON SEPTEMBER, 1922
Availing itself of the fact that the League of Nations is holding its assembly at Geneva in order to discuss the questions within its competence, the Georgian Government considers that it must once more draw the attention of the assembly to the situation of Georgia, and to inform it of the events which have taken place in the country since the assembly of September, 1921.
186
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF 'GEORGIA
Since Georgia was occupied by the Russian Bolshevik troops in defiance of the pledges signed by the Moscow Government, the people of Georgia have continually protested by every means in their power against the rule imposed on them by foreign troops. On various occasions they have given expression to their hostile feelings against the invadei s by means of public demonstrations and strikes, and have given proof of the unanimity of all the classes and of all the political parties of the nation in protesting against soviet rule. In certain districts there have been armed risings. In Svanetia, for example, the struggle assumed such a character that the red army was compelled to abandon its scheme of conquest, and part of the mountainous region remained free. The guiding motive of these demonstrations and risings is to secure the evacuat'on of Georgia by the Russian troops and the reestablishment of demo. cratic rule. The officials of Moscow established in Tiflis can only exercise their domination by means of terror. Every kind of liberty has been suppressed. Law and justice are trampled under foot. The law is only recognized when it is profitable to the Interest of the invader and of hi agents. The so-called elections to the soviets have been merely nominations Imposed by the forces in occupation. All acts of protest are barbarously repressed. The Tcheka, whose members are all foreigners or former convicts, have establiqhed in the country a reign of terror without precedent in the history of Georgia; the workmen on thi railways, tramways, and nationalized industrial establishments, and the employees and officials of the various public services are dismissed on the least suspicion or are transferred to .4ussia under pretext of tla exigencies of the service and are replaced by foreigners. The prisons are overflowing with persons who have been arrested; there are more than 12,000 of them. Receiving hardly any food and living in appalling sanitary conditions, they suffer from hunger and disease and die in large numbers. These are the best citizens of the country, the members of the constituent assembly, the most prominent intellectuals, and the officers of the national army, mriost of whom were arrested at the outset of the occupation and have not yet been tried, and who have not even up to the present been told of the crime of which they are accused. On May 25 and 20 of this year, on the occasion of the anniversary of the proclamation of the independence of Georgia, the population wished to commemorate this historic date by peaceable demonstrations. The authorities in occupation, after outraging national sentiment by declaring that the real date of the independence of Georgia was February 25, the day on which the red Russian army entered Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, proceeded to commit appalling acts of violence under the pretext of maintaining order. The smallest gatherings were dispersed by armed forces, which fired on the population and hurled bombs and grenades among them; numerous persons were killed and wounded. The persons who were arrested were beaten, dragged by mounted Tehekists, ane thrown into the cellars of the Teheka, where their torture was continued. Concurrentiy with these nets of barbarism against Individuals, all that the country possv.,ses is being pillaged, plundered, and destroyed. The authorities In occupation, without any regard for the national wealth or for the future of the country, send to Russia everything which can be moved, and whatever pleases their leaders is squandered, in defiance of Pli private and public rights. Georgia is thus doomed to extermination by the Russian power and has become unrecognizable. Famine is raging in certain Provinces. A report drawn up by the Bolshevik authorities themslveq states that the number of starving persons reaches 250,000. Eplilemics are spreading: and in view of the absence of sanitary measures to combat them and the lack of medicine, they are claiming more and more numerous victims. M. Braztimal, delegate of the internatlinli syntilhallst conferin.e of Amsterdam, to whom was intru.Sted thle task ef sullilyinmg Georgia with medicine, on his return, drew a melawlholy picture of proeat-day Georgia. "The maii imnpres::ia. produced on a persIm arriving lit Georgia." says Ile. "is one of tniver.;al and Irremediable devastation, The streets, houses. Government buildings, apartments, furniture. chairs, tables. cupboards., clothes. linen, footwear, everything i,; torn. worn omt. demolisihed. plundered, and dest rayed." Mr. Serwey. a 1Belgian. who '%%as sent by the International col4orative societies on a mission to th, cooperative societies of Geogila, describes in his
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA report the profound distress which is prevalent throughout the country, and compares the present position of Georgia with Belgium's position during the German occupation. The occupation of Georgia is the triumph of the Moscow regime; it is the triumph of forces which destroy all national life and all material progress. At first the Bolsheviks attempted to hide their misdeeds by inventing the lie about an internal revolution in the country. Moscow caused this view to be desseminated through the international communist press. But the truth could not remain hidden. 1. Trotsky, in a book directed against Georgia, and 'M.Itadek, at the meeting of tile three internationals, were forced to admit that Georgia had, in fact, been invaded by the red army. In a report sent to the central committee of the Russian Communist Party, P. Makharadze, agent of tile government of Moscow, who was nominated president of the "Revkon,' or revolutionary committee of Georgia, at the very beginning of the occupation declared that"When the offensive of the red army began, no communist nucleus, no member of the party knew anything us to why this offensive was being carried nut; it was, indeed, quite unexpected. The entry of the red army into Georgia and fle proclamation of the soviet authority assumed the nature ot a conquest. for at that time there was no thought of any agitation in favor of a rising within the country itself. When the authority of the soviets was prpclaimed. no group of the communist party, no single member of the partylet us leave it at lat-could lie found capable 'if establishing this authority, and. more often than not. only suspicious tharacters or absolute criminals caine forward to offer their support." Tn order to prove to Europei how l''stiie tile Georgian people is to the lolshevik rule. the national government, in agreement with all the political ivrtics of Georgia. has more than once requested that an international comjnittee of inquiry should le sent to make investigations on the spot. Moscow, titrmigh its representativ-s tt the conference of the three internationals in Berlin. finally consenled to submit this question to the " committee of nine but. in conformity with its usual procedure, it did not keep its word. At the conferences of Cannes. Genoa. and The league, at which the Ytussiau problem was to I)e considered. the Georgian question was bound to he raised, althougli Georgia, in conformity with the Cannes decision, according to which Georgia was held to Ile Asiatic State, was not represented. Georgia, an however, submitted her grievances, and a protest through the memoranda of its lawful Government. through statements made by the various political parties of Georgia, and through a protest lodged by the head of the church of Georgia. She followed the coursee of lese discussions with anxiety. She hoped that the elvilized natitins would not remain indifferent to the crime lishmen' of relations with the government of the soviets, the evacuation of Georgia by the Russian troops. The government of Moscow attempted to have the Rui,;.jan delegation at Genoa recognized as representing Georgia also. This attempt failed, and the conference adhered to the ('annes resolution. Indeed, the lusslan subcommittee. in connection with the insurrections in Svanetia and the measures of repression taken by the authorities of occupation, and at tie request of the National Government of Georgia, brought the matter up before the Russian delegation with a view to putting an end to te continual bloodshed in Georgia. But 31. Tehitcherin denied the facts, in spite of the convincing proof which was submitted to the conference, and evaded this question icy raising a more general one-that of all the "oppressed nations." lie also accused tile powers who were present of themselves holding various peoples in subjection. The Russian delegation therefore continued to use the wealth of the Caucasus (its oil, its manganese. etc.) as a means for driving a bargain with tile object of obtaining credits and of consolidating the Bolshevik power. To-day it is perfectly apparent to all that the invasion of the Caucasus and Georgia was carried out with the intention of obtaining a hold over this country's wealth. 3!. Radek admitted as much in Berlin. saying that the soviets hal occupied Georgia in order to obtain "access to its oil." Georgia has been recognized "de Jure" by the majority of the civilized pow(rs, and even by Russia herself, who solemnly declaredd In the treaty dated May 9, 1920 (article 1) "that she recognized unreservedly the Independence and sovereignty of the Georgian state." The Georgian people should be free to work out their own destiny.
of the ltolsieviks. and that they woil demand, as a cilndition for tIe- estab-
188
International considerations, both of a political and economic nature, require that the evacuation of the country by the Russian troops should be insisted upon. Georgia will never submit to the yoke of Moscow, and as long as the Caucasus, and especially Georgia, remain under Russian domination no lasting peace can ever be established in the Caucasus nor in Asia Minor. Just as Tsarlst Russia-with its imperialistic aims-used the Caucasus as a military base for extending its influence throughout Asia Minor and the middle east, to-day the Bolshevik government is trying through these same regions to extend its influence. From the economic point of view, thanks to its geographical situation. Georgia, by means of her roads, railway, plip line and harbor, commands the highways for tile traffic in oil and other products of the Caucasus and the neighboring regions and forms a natural link between the markets of Europe and these rich countries. In order to put an end to the upheavals and wars which continue to hinder the development of all productive labor, it is above all essential that Georgia ain,! 9i Caucasus should, by their liberation and a neutrality which would make them accessible to all the powers as well as to Russia, be reestablished as a natural link between Europe and Asia. It !s true that, in its struggle against Rusisan occupation, the Georgian people received frequent expressions of sympathy from the civilized world; the governments of the various powers on several occasions evinced their moral support; speeches in Parliament, addresses. motions passed inI its favor by municipalities, political parties, syndicates, cooperative, and other societies, have been a source of great encouragement. But how loudly would the voice of the League of Nations ring-that great court of international justice! The Georgian Government in a memorandum addressed to the assembly of the League of Nations held at Geneva |it September, 1921, "after describing the situation of Georgia. entreated thie asseembly to protest "against the Bolshevik invasion and the occupancy of Georgia by the Red troops of the soviet." Unhappily this request proved fruitless, although the congress oit the union of associations for the League of Nations, held at Geneva Itself shortly beforehand, passed at vote urgently entreating the council and tie -pssenbly the of League of Nations to adopt ineas|res .u.h that the right of peoples to dispose of theinselves might be aplilied to Georgia. The national Government of Georgia, hopes that this statement of facts will persuade the League of Nations, the guardian of the rights of people., to protest against the unspeakable atrocities committed by the Bolsheviks, and to find means to alleviate the sufferings of the Georgian people, wh, lt the mercy of a horrille, despotic power, are strugging against famine aid'! disease.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
RECORDS OF TilE TItlRD ASSLMBLY-MINUTES 01' T1E SIXTH COMMITIT.E (POLITICAL QUESTIONS)
Meeting held on September 20, 1922, at 3.30 p. n.

GEORGIA: PROPOSAL BY H. DF. UROUCKERE
M. le lrouckere (I1'lgiua) having recalled the text of his proposal (Annex 12), stated that lie hail given muih thought to it beforo-- submitting it to the assembly and lie wished to point out the mait reason i underlying it. As a iriatte.e of fat. tle 'tle lima tiad been pla cd before tle assembly at the very begionilig (if tho stiion. as the ietmorandum addres,ed to the secretariat by fhe Georgin (;iiveinmaent hail been brought to lbfw i|itice of the assembly, drawing its attention to the situation of Georgia r.nd appealing for the lelp id the lieJ.tzage of Nations. The Georgian Government, by whoma ,his appeal was issue, was a legitimate Governmnt in the sense in wiieh the word was used in that asseinaly: that is to say. it was saed 1111o the national will and wa.s r,,,,wgnized as a ('ivrnniint by the other nations, lie recalled Georgia's
long period of anit indelpendence, her volitary union with 1u.ssia in the
eighteenth century. the act of violence connitted ii 18 3, ani Inst-after the war--her de.laralion of independence ini 1t1i. which was confirmel in 11)19 by a properly elected ( oustituent assembly. which hind never failed iII its 14Yal snliqsrt of tlie ( i,,ernnent from wih 411 tihe appeal hld eilanated. 'The
189
legitimate character of this Government was demonstrated) no less clearly abroad than at home; it was recognized de jure by the allied powers on January 20, 1921, and afterwards by other countries, foremost among whom was Belgium and later the Argentine, Poland, Austria, Rumania, and many others. This act of recognition was the result of ripe refle-tlon on the part of the powers and had. indeed, been consecrated by reason of the fact that It was accorded on the very eve of the invasion of the country. This legitimate government had been driven from its territory by tie Russian invader. If it were claimed that it had thereby lost its legitimate character, the example of Belgium formed an unanswerable reply. The first State to recognize Georgia had been the Russian Federative Soviet Republic by the treaty concluded with Georgia on May 7. 19-0. in the first article of which the independence of the country and tine legitimacy of its government were recognized. In article 2 Russia abjured any Interventlon in the affairs of Georgia. On February 15 in the following year Georgia was invaded without any declaration of war, and without having given any provocation, by the soviet armies in cooperation with the Turkish armies, and it was at this time. when the Government had to make a stand oil two different fronts, that the power was seized by foreign element. Tine speaker brought forward documentary evidence in proof of his statement, namely, the report of the Eleventh Russian Army (December 18, 1920) giving the complete plan for tie invasion of Geoigia. and also admissions made by Trotsky In his book entitled " Between Imperhlism and the tRevolution," and by ltadek. who had sald in Berlin: " We Invaded Georgia; we had to do so-we needed oil." Further. he adduced the confesslons of the very man who had been appointed by the Soviet Itepublic to govern Georgia, Nagarodz6, chief of the so-called Georgian Communist Party, in a document dated December 6. 1921. Two passages from this document showed that tile Communist chief had no illusions as to the attitude of the Georgian t 1ion toward tbe- (Coniianumlist ri'gie. Yet another wthority might be quotel. At Genoa. on April 22. 31. Motto and M. granting brought before the political commission a note from the Georgian Goverrment asking for intervention on the part of the powers Inl order to put an end to the occupation of Georgia by Rtssian troops. 31. Selnanzer propos,'d that the Rlulssan delegation should be approahed Ip Itli a view to obtalniii the withdrawal of it(e ,ovlet troops. tied tine restoration of the country's Independence. Men such as M1r. Lloyd George. o'n behalf of the British Government, and 31. Barthou, on behalf of th Fnench Government, joined in this action. And now to-day. lis, saute Georgian (asvrinent. possessing a I did, It all the elcaens of Ilgithnoay. turned to the league and poitcd to its country, ravaged by war, recovering by wonderful efforts. then ravaged anew lay tile armies of occupation, and offering a spectac.o of dlemolatiin nl.ery, s famine, and plague. Could the league remain Mind to all this? It would le said that Georgia was not a member of the league. When she applied in 1920 she had not been recognized by any power. and immediately after recognition was granted the invasion took place. If Georgia lnd been a ietinem', it would have be'-n necessary to apply the rovislons of article 10 of the covenanit. Would it have been possible at that time for even the most ardent friend of Georgia to consider her admission po.s!ble, in view of all the consequence involved by the -alted action pre.scribcd nt tie covenant? ]tut because Georgia wa% not a member, (lid it follow that the league had 11o duty tovart her? In the rceent past the league had not drawn anty distinctilo, between Greek and Armenian refugee,. Moreover, Georgia was, attacked to the technical organizations of tie league and her government corres'pnded regutlarly with tint league. The fact thnat shi wa not a mnodier ol:, maide one difference. nannely, that she could not plead article l: the assembly, however, was entitled to do so. The assentldy woud not ivish it to lit, sald that there were ohipresseid peoples so small as to Ie beneath its interetst. Georgia was : distant country. The question of Georih. however, was loluld up with tlt(, most serlos of tile league's present prolezn,4. Georgia w%,as near Contantinople. and already troops were concentrate ng at Balum: perhalis site would! ana tion miitary literr of il innlrialisumm which stenlily looked toward tine ltoporus'. Georgia was near Samyrna. She mv.4s near Armnenia, tilld the Georgian and Armenian peoples woilIl lie bolll x- tine 'li ,'st of Ilond-: i\lc n they realized tie peed for
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF- GEORGIA mutual aid. Again, Georgia was near both Baku and the Caspian Sea, and was on the road to central Asia. It was true that she was not near Bagdad, but she was not far from Adana. The Georgian question was not one of those theoretical problems which could be lightly laid aside. The Genoa conference had tried to ignore it, but the problem remained and would always remain. The speaker further pointed out that his proposal was less bold than the action taken at Genoa. Ita sole object was to ascertain obvious facts, and it gave promise for the future to an oppressed people. The future alone would decide the means by which the Georgian people would be able to return to their normal life and regain self-determination, but the league should make It clear at once that its mission was to restore this vital part of the world to normal conditions. This would not be a mere platonic wish, but a valuable encouragement to this oppressed people, and other peoples as well, and they might be calmed by the knowledge that the league had not forgotten them. The league would say to them, "Pat~ence, perseverance; the day of justice will come." The chairman stated that he was voicing the opinion of the committee in thanking the BIlgian delegate for his interesting, detailed, and vigorous statement. Mr. Fishur (British Empire) said that he had listened with much emotion to the eloquent and ear speech of M. de Blroucklre. Great Britain had always symnpoathized with this small but brave and interesting people, which to-day was under the yoke of a foreign army. The oppression of the small Caucasian Republics by the Russian Soviet was an historical disaster. Unfortunately, there was no Immediate prospect of saving Georgia. Everyone agreed that the league could not remain indifferent to any cause in which humanity .as at stake, but It was undesirable to ask the council to undertake political action which might involve the use of force. On behalf of his government, the speaker declared that at present lie could see no means of employing force for that purpose. lie PrOl to introduce a slight amendment into the proposal In such a way as to demonstrate clearly that the league was still concerned with the fate of the population of Georgia, and that it was anxious to follow the course of e: ents in that country. but also in such a way as to avoid binding the council in any manner to ;any fixed policy. lord Robert Cecil (South Africa) said that he warnly seconded the remarks of the British delegate. All who had read the document sent by the Georgian Minister at Paris, and who had heard M. de Broucktre's speech, realized the sufferings which Georgia endured as a result of unjustifiable military operations; but it was equally clear that the league of Nations should restrict itself to taking practical steps and should avoid a visionary Idealism; it must not attempt to redress wrongs wherever they might exist. It was clear that no power equld at the present moment take practli.al Ineasurc.4 on behalf of Georgia. and no member would plunge into a war unles forced to do so-a possibility which it was to be hoped would not arlse. Tie Dolgian delegate's proposal, in the form in which it then existed. did not appear likely to produce any practical re-ult. Indeed. it contained elements of danger. It might he regarded as ,n act of defiance to the Soviet Government, for which the league, could nec take responsibility. Demonstrations of defiance should not be nade unicss they could be supported. A still greater danger lay in the fact that the propM)sal might give rise to false hropes anong a po)ulation whhh they were amnable to assist. Such hopes might result in still more terrible sufferings. The South African delegate, however, strongly sympathized with th.e sufferings and did not wish to risk ndlding to them. All polilcal or military suggestions which would have no practical outcome imust be avoided. lIle proposed to his Belgian colleague that the resolution, should loe amended ac follows: "The Assembly of the League of Nations. moved by the present unhappy position of Georgia, invite. the council to give attentive consideration to the events In this part (of the world that it may lie able to selze any opportunity which may ari-e for giving assistance t the G-rorgian people li their distress." 31. Erich (Finland) said that the Finnish d~e.grrtlon associated itself with the spirit and Initiative of 1. (It roucvkre the more wtrmly as Fihnmid was deeply conscious of the cornmur.ity of intterests '.xicting between all the ,o.ate.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEJRGIA
191
-which had severed their allegiance to the old Russian Empire and had been founded upon its ruins. The large majority of these nations, formerly oppressed by the Russian Government, had, happily, succeeded in surviving their vicissitudes, and, at the expense of considerable effort, had gained their independence. Other less fortunate nations had failed and had been obliged to accept the'arbitrary rule of the government of the soviets. Convinced that the League of Nations would do its best to assist those states which had preserved their independence In their important task of resisting the spread of Bolshevism and the attacks of the Russian invader, the Finnish delegation hoped that the league would also make an effort to save nations such as Georgia, or the unhappy province of Eastern Carelia, whose Inhabitants %Vero united by race to the Finnish people, and whose cause had been submitted for a consideration of the secretariat. The Finnish delegation hoped that the league would be able to save these nations, which at the present moment were placed under the intolerable rules of the Bolshevists. X. de Broucktre (Belgium), in reply to Mr. Fisher, wished to remove a misunderstanding. Tie British delegate bad very properly remarked that the league should not undertake to assist the cause of freedom by force of arms. The Belgian delegate made detailed comments on the various parts of the proposal and said that no such suggestion had been Intended. The proposal laid stress upon the need for patience, for abstaining from force, and, above all, for refusing at the moment to embark upon a war. The author of the proposal had been so cautious that lie had not even included the word "independence," because lie thought that P free life might in practice take several different forms. One factor aloz.e made liberty impossible--military dictatorship. It might be said without temerity that, under favorable cireum-tances, the league would help the Georgian people to attain a position in which they would no louiger be subljected to military force. If this Idea, however, had not been suffldelega'W, would suiiport his British col'ienlly clearly expressed, the ;Itlglan league's s gges( iins. lie would lil It more difficult to accept Li rd Robert Cccii's amehnent. (he wishes The suppression of the words " invaded and occupied contrary to) re',uignize a fact which was of the inhailitantl" would c,,nstitute a refusal 14) mt in ti.-pule. The league had aready heard dlhrv.gs put forward by small aguaiilist powerful nations. These cases had bca boit.o-gli in lit ,mitie of natloi right, lie asked whether, in cuses a flet lag thi, Soviet Itelhllie tIhe league no longer dared to tak' right In consideration. Thu Smth African dieegate's wording wis no answer to this que.ition, for the Ceoirgians were not asking for mere charity. They hiiew that it League of Natiipns had bel created for the purpose (if sonic day establishing right in the plate of inigit. Was the league "W to say to Ihelml, e can not grilnt you right, but we cali give po1ll lnis Lord Rplbert (Ccil, with his ia::sion for realities, had implored the tcommittee to protctt1 with c.autioni ald had pit It oLhits g1u:,rd against liltalisia. The Belgian delegate valued caution, li1t le was also a ,ullorter f blIness. They must dare Iio look the fa, ls in the fate anil to '.na ure tle diticullies if they were to surmount them. They vould not be giving ri-i to false hopes league w',uld one day be among tle (ieuirgilns, and lie was convinced that tli, able to establish right. As Jaur s had said, mankind couli lot live wili the corpwe. of assassinated nations in the cellar. Further, the Georgian question was entangled witl nil peseitt-lay questions would at of practical politics. Any attempt to solve the Armelnian prolib' the same time affect Georgia. The league would shortly lie requested to intervene on behalf of peace itAsia Minor. Ils asked if it could d1o so while tile Caucasus iqueslion was still unsolvedl, lie did vot ask that the Georgian olblenl should be solved immediately. The league need inerely say that it had nrit overlooked the Georgian question,, ant! that Its eager desire wits to do justice at the proper tie. .M. Mlotta (Switzerland) had listened with deep interest to the statement oi: 1. de B3rou.ktre and to the remarks of the British representatives anid if Lord tobert Cecil. There coul not lie any very serious differences of opinion when once it had been established that the Belgian proposal dl not seek to lneivene for the solution of the Georhian fluestioni by ofher thnun ieaceful neans. 'fliat was the essential point. lie a&o thtighit that there was some danger in the league's confining Itself to nierely pious resolutins. They must not be 96153-2 1-13
192
NATIONAL REPUBLTO OF GEOROIA
too free with resolutions, for superficial minds might be Inclined to think of th? league as a gathering of States meeting once a year for the expression of their wishes without any risk. On the other hand, so long as the league was not a superstate-and that was a very distant eventuality-it would not have any material means at its disposal, no army, no funds. It thus ought necessarily to confine itself to the expression of opinions supported by'the universal conscience of mankind on questions affecting world peace. The Swiss delegate did not think that the Belgian formula constituted a challenge; if it had been otherwise he, the representative of the most neutral country in the world, could not have been a party to it. The proposal stated an obvious fact, the formation of which would hardly be sufficient to cause a state of tension between the league and the soviet republic. However, if the committee thought otherwise, the speaker would agree to the omission of the words "invaded, etc." On the other hand, the final formula proposed by Lord Robert Cecll was excessively vague. The Swiss delegate proposed to keep to M. de Brouckdre's wording, introducing the words "by peaceful meanss" 3!. de Brouckdre (Belgium) ecepted this amendment. 31. Askenazy (Poland) apprecluted the lofty intentions of the Belgian delegate, which found an echo In all hearts. But the wise remarks of Lord Robert Cecil seemed to him worthy of the true dignity of the league, of the great importance of its resolutions, of the feeling of responsibility Incurred, and of the hopes it might arouse. Ile would like to have been able to accept 1. Motta's suggestion, but if the words had a political meaning, Ile did not quite understand, if they kept to facts, what was added by the words "by peaceful means." lie therefore requested the committee to accept the Bel. gian proposal with the necessary alterations suggested by Lord Robert Cecil. 51. Branting (Sweden) entirely agreed with the remarks of M. Motta. It did not sern to him to be going too far If they made use of words which only expressed a truth recognized by all. If the league (1(i not dare to proclaim that the Georgian people should, one day or other, have their independence like other peoples-who themselves might also one (lay be sunjected to tile yoke of the invader-it would be far from fulfilling its purpose, and lie was astonished that on this occasion Lord Robert Cecil showed so little of that courage which lie had displayedd on so ii'tny occasions when It had been a pleasure to follow him if it was at all pos.;ible to do so. There was no fuitestion here of converting this resolution into a Aimple expression of pity for unhappy Georgia, but of proclaiming to the world that the Georgian nation had a right to iil-erty, and that this was how the league regarded the situa. tion in that pari of tie world. They should state clearly that io challenge was intended to any power; to say to the Georgian people "invaded r.d occupied against its will," that it ought to I,e helped by peaceful meaus amld that the conscience of mankind was on its sile was by no means an insignificant declaration. An opinion supported by the conscience of mankind would have greater weight at no very distant date. They should have the courage to pronounce these words, which would give the Georgian people faith in its independence and would show it that it aroused sincere sympathy throughout the whole civilized world. Lord Robert Cecil (South Africa) regretted that lie had not been convinced by the Swedish delegate. They must be very careful not to pass resolutions for which they might have to pay dearly. lie liked boldness, iro. vided that it involved no risks except to him who showed it. If this resolution were addressed to any great lpowers and they took no notice of it, the only result would be nothing worse than a wound to the league's amour propre. But were they not, under the pretext of expressiig some fine feelings, about t expose G ,'orgia to further sufferings? Were they quite sure, moreover, that the resolution really represented the wises of the Georgians? The appeal to th, league came from the minister in Parls, not front Georgin herself. To adopt tihe resolution. even in the form prolxiscl by 3I. Siotta, might amount to saying to the G.orgian people. " You hleve rigot (n your sile; wh-t are -;ou waiting for to recover your liherty? " Would not that be InOilg iem to revolt. 1i14 : revolt womhl Ile loi ,ql allattack of the, fol by tusslan troops, with all Imaginable consequences? Nobolfy shared noble Ideas more than the South African delegate, hut iho preft-rrod to rcnUonce thvmi if timy uitl to carnagife. Two .years Ifort 1h
NATIONAL EEPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
193
assembly had adopted a resolution In favor of Armenia-a much more moderate resolution than this one, and one for which he was partly responsible. After the vote several members asked him If he had really the right to risk increasing the sufferings of the Armenian people in this way. That risk would be greater for the Georgian people, in view of the strong wording of the proHe posal, and he could not be a larty to it. concluded by saying that he had no intention of restricting the action of the league in any way; still less was he deaf to the sufferings of the Georgian people. Mr. Fisher (British Empire) regretted that M. de Brouck~re was unable to accept the amendment of Lord Robert Cecil, whose apprehensions he shared. Moreover, as a member of the British cabinet, it would be difficult for him to bind his colleagues to give effect to the resolution. The addition proposed by M. Motta explained the peaceful intention of the proposal, but it did not exclude the possibility of a rising in Georgia. Further, was it not one of the reproaches leveled against the Soviet Government that they fomented sedition In other countries. Again, the words " invaded and occupied contrary to tie- wishes of its Inhabitants" might be justified, but. the contrary might also be the case. There was undoubtedly a strong Georgian CommunIst Party. In any case the league could not accept responsibility for these %ords, whlei might he regarded its provocative to the Soviet Government; nil the diploinats present would agree that this was so. Would the Belgian delegate agree to add to the word " ly peaceful means" the words "and In conformity with ti(- provisions of international law", Ti1e British delea-ate suggested this solution, while lkrsonally preferring Lord Robert Cecil's amendment. M. de Broekere (lHelgium) thought that, in spite of differences of opinion, help of the Georgian the committee was unanimous In wishing to cme to tile pole, not only in order to alleviate its sufferings but also to see that it had regards tie second part justice. The delegate accepted Mr. Fisher's proposal as knew the Georgian people sufllof the resolution. As regards tile first part, lie watchful solicitude of tire clefitly well to lie suire that finas1suran(e Of tile able league weull undoubtedly dissuade Ii, people from a desperate act and et it to lie patient. Nevertheless lie would agree to the otisslon of the words in question on condition that tile words " moved by the present unhappy situation, etc.," were not Insisted upon. After a further textual amendment proposed by 31. Molta (Switzerland), the proposal was unanimously adopted In the following form: situation In "Tile Assembly ef the League of Nations, having conshdred tile Georgla, Invites the council to follow attentivly the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may lie able to seize any opportunity which may ocicur to help ii the restoration of this country to normal coilitions lay any peacefil mean in accrdalice with the rules 'if international law."
SITUATION IN (;F
:OJAA-tTORT OF ' RFSOIJU'rION
SIXTHt COMiarrn Sil:
The PIra:,srrf.s 'i
The niext Item 'aII
t,,
agenda is the examination of the report
of tile sixli .oilltit tea' ail IN sit tItlion ill Georgi1a. (A.lnex 10, Vol. 1r.) I call ulpon .lozkiccr iDouloa, chairmall of ilie sixth coinriittee, and 31. Napoite, rapporteur, ta take their lates an tie Ilatforin.
''he
.JIjkliet-r J.4illil1
a'laces Ml Ihall 31. uilill. 1a'a1h illair
on tie, llatforiil.)
l'Jwsb
assembly. .N". i.' Jiizte, raialwrtrUir. ,vili aarre.-4s tile 31.

arid gentleimi, the text of tie , c illlliitclwas as follows: lreselit linhalipy movel by tle ot(lilpleal contrary to tire vilhea attentively the course of events
.%1.L.vAlzXi1: (011ala41a), .1t porlteir. i,,ailie ti o ll , X ii ra it wh ich wa, sdll ill ra-ai lut "'i'e Asselibly af tihe .eagle (f Nation's, iiril at a. asla (,om tlr i"i u positlori (if (;e~rgi il to falliw of it.s irllabltant.. Ilivites. lie cou
ulils)rt unity which Iii this part (of the world. so t;hat ti alry ie' nue to seize aliny
to llii,,is ti lllrtry its, iorair:l I .c iiit lips.'" 4af t ,(.(air help ina the, rusi4ai-a lr' I i-legata- of Heltilllin. l(. l a I l's .11. 0i' Jtr uk ion "a' 'Ilis r'a'it wi c-In ; til il i ir I ir it rena klha le s pv( ,h. ili %hi(h Iia d - rile li e liaif rf l
niV
NATIONiAL PUBLIC OF GIEORGIA

the people of Georgia are placed, and related the political history of the couTutry, Its long independent past, and the various events which terminated. In February, 1921, In the Invasion of this unhappy country by Russia. He gave a striking description of present conditions in Georgia, ravaged as she is by the armies of occupation, a prey to desolation, misery, famine, and epidemics. He stated that it was of vital importance for the peace of Europe that normal conditions should be restored in Georgia. All the members of the committee declared themselves in sympathy with the recommendation submitted by M. de Brouckre, but some members were of the opinion that the text should be modified, as it might be dangerous to suggest political or military action which it would be impossible for the League of Nations to undertake. This point of view was specially emphasized by Lord Robert Cecil and Mr. Fisher. The latter thought that the resolution as it then stood might be considered to be provocative In relation to the Russian Government, and that its effect might be to make the situation of Georgia more serious still. Several amendments were suggested by Lord Robert Cecil, Mr. Fisher, and Mr.. Motta, and, finally, the author of the re-aolution accepted a modified resolution which was unanimously adopted by the sixth committee and which we ask the assembly to approve. The PRESIDENT. M. do Broucktre, the representative of Belgium, will address the assembly. 31. do BROUCKPRE (Belgium). Ladies and gentlemen, I will confine myself to a few observations. In the course of the debate-s of the sixth committee I explained at length, perhaps at too great length, the reasons for my proposal. This proposal gave rise to a detailed discussion. We finally arrived at an agreement which, though containing various shades of opinion, was uunailmous. The discussion seems to have exhausted its#f. and there remains very little for we to say. I will therefore limit myself to a few short remarks, and 1 will also make a statement wihh I think will help to cement tie agreement which we have now reached. In this Transcaueasia through which so) many leo!es have pssed-for it is a gicat thoroughfare (and you will perhaps allow ine to point out that we ought always to fix our attention on regions of this nature if we do not wish to be taken by surprise when great changes in the international situation occur)-in this Traneauc-ia.l where so mnammy leoi)le live. Jostle one aliothrr. and often come to allows, there l-Viitch injiistice and numlch inisery at the present time. Many peoples are sulfering ini those regions, nlauy art' opprcssvd, ald if we rentain different to their fate, we hall lie failing not only ill hunianitarian principles but, what is ierhalos more e..ezatll in the prineliles of elementary political wisdom. Our atentilon will shortly be called to the dikistr ols situation in Armenia Iby a resolution sulnitted by Lord Robert ('ceil, Which, I ant Sure. we .,4hall al Support. Georgia, too, has appealed to u. set forth its grievances. and declared itself a vlini of violent oppression. W'itliout entering million a 1de1ailhd d1isenmi-,jiiin of my proposal, I should like to say that the a,-enihily's resIlution will send a message of hope to these people who are resolutely clalminlg their rights, and who have confidence In their rights, and will tissure them that surh claims will never leave it indifferent or passive. Such a message of hope may laie immniedilate results, for the words spoken here often awaken far-distant eches. I do not think it will be maiuny years before the substance of our debateA is known i the bight valleys of tile Caucasus. It will bring great consolation there, and it will also, I llrmly believe, exercise a calming influen,-e. it was es'jKcimilly to in.st reallyly this last point that I wished tea speak in here for a few moments to-day. As what has happened hcre will he inade known In Georgia. let nile addre.- a word to may moany Georgiaan friends. and awssure them' that the m esohition whhh iA Ieffre the .nsi'imily ctcnt ai"l, t only a prooinle. but also a word of adivl.e. It s y to lhpt : "The League of Nntions9 is there. the litethol, which it employs are still
ilooi'rfect and inade(luite, bit they art, htiprovi-g and lconittg more anld more
effeelive In solvng International conlllts without the lecessity of blooldlshed.

"fite resolution gli-ts you hope.
That hole, and the knowledge that the justice
195
which you claim will be yours, mu.t banish all the promptings of despair from your hearts. Abstain from premature and violent action, which can only bring you to greater misery. Only keep the flame of liberty burning In your hearts and be content to wait In confidence." And if these words are heard, the immediate effect of our resolution apart from its future results, will be to induce a certain measure of culm, tranquility, and peace. We shall have accomplished great things, If, only on this one point among so many others, we have been able to prevent bloodshed. (Applause.] The PRESIDENT. There are no further speakers on the list. If no one wishes to speak, I shall declare the discussion closed. The discussion is closed. The text of the resolution Is as follows:
SITUATION IN GEORGIA
"The assembly, having considered the situation In Georgia, Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law." If no member requires a vote, I shall consider the resolution as adopted unanimously. [Assent.] The resolution was unanimously adopted.
GEGROIAN INDEPENDENCE SOUGHT
The following note is communicated to the delegates at the assembly for their information: GENEVA, September 19, 1923. Sin: Since the occupation of Georgia by the troops of the Government of Mos.cow, carried out in defiance of the stipulations of the treaty signed by that Government, may owit Governnment, which has been obliged to renanli Inm exile abroad in consequence of this occupation, has sent several memoranda to the League of Nations, with a view to laying before it the position of Georgia. The Georgian question %as introduced ilcfore time third, assen,bly on tihe iniimiive of the Belgian delegation, and after careful consideration the assenibly passel unanimously in favor of the Georgian Republic a resolution, the text of which I venture to quote here: "The Assemibly of the League of Nations, having considered the situation In Georgia, Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of thil, country to normmal conditions by any peaceful means in accordaince with tie rules of International law." This resolution gave the people of Georgia noluled ammfillmneo fit internatnfil justice and led them to hope for a peaceful solution of the problem. This year my Governiment considers it necessary to voice time feelings of the Geor-glan people directly to tie League of Nations In the form of an appeal addressed to the league by tie committee for Georgian Imndependence. The committee for Georgian independence. founded by all the political partie. of tile constituent asseinbly, was formed In April. 1922. This committee, suiported by all cla: es of the nation, Including among its members repre.,ntatives of all political and social groups, and posse,ssmng organization in all the l'rovinv.s of the m'outdIry. Is tNm.xprissi ,n of the tixedi determinationi of tile Georgian people to free itself from a forelq yoke. It is this body whiel Is at present leomding the national mnovenent. In forwarding to you the annexed appeal from tie committee for Georgian Independence, I beg you. on behalf of iny Governmient. to be so good as to sub. ti it It to tim ('mmm il' :aid A-',m ibly thi, .i of sllte of Nlltlltm . I hart. the Imnor to be, etc., I. CmAVw(HVrx. Dcilcgote of the .National (Iocerrmnc, t of (icorgi:. To tie lolln. Sin EtRIr 1)urttMONm,
tfrerclory, G(eral of Ihe Laqiju. of .Natrm m, (immlmma.
. 1IV
"APPEAL OF TilE
NATIONAL
C MMITTIP.
RPURLIC OF GEoRGIA
INDFJ'RNDENCE TO THFE LEAGUE OP
FOR OGOROIAN NATIONS
In the name of the Georgian people, the committee for Georgian Independence, in which all classes of the population are represented and to which all the . political parties of the constituent assembly have rallied without exception. approaches the League of Nations. the mouthpiece of the civilized world, in order to draw its attention to the present situation in Georgia. We can not convey any adequate impression of the situation, since words are too feeble to portray the suffering endured by our nation. The lawful Government of Georgia has on many occasions acquainted the League of Nations with the past and present history of the country. For centuries Georgia existed as an independent and self-governing State; her people always bravely defended their native soil. Toward the end of the elghteenth century Georgia concluded a treaty of friendship with Russia. but Russia a few years later began. In spite of this treaty., to carry out her policy "of destroying Georgian nationality. But national feeling it Georgia proved so strong that great Russian nationalism was unable to stilie it. On May 26, 1018. Georgia reconquered her independence and sovereignty. The constituent assembly, elected by universal suffrage. endowed the country .with a national government, an administration, and an army. After recelvilg "de facto" recognition by tlie powers. Georgia was soon recognized "de Jure," Russia hers-,if concluding a treaty with her in 1920. ]u February, 1921, however. Georgia was suddenly surrounded and invaded by the Russian armies without any declaration of watr. In this unequal struggle Georgia was forced to give way before superior numbers. After a desperate resistance, which lasted for ive weeks. Rus si again occupied her territory. Russia. regarding the treaty a.% scrap of paper. In deflince of the will of a the people, forced Georgia to enter into the union known as tle "Socialist Soviet Republics." In face of violeln.e the cnommittee of inion'kendeonce as.soelated itself with the protest of the Georgian Government. which has already been forwarded to the states members of the League of Nations. The present Government of Russia. disregardlng the rights of the Georgian people, has driven out her parliament, abolished her army. and suppressed ier currency. The country is governed by the Russian Communist Party and the occupation authorities. The "Soviet Government" of Tiflis. composed of Georgian communists, Is In reality aprponted by Moscow and is Moscow's docile agent. The country has e4,n turned into one vast shares. Without trial, without even any preliminary Inquiry, leading Georgians of all classe.. political and military men, workers and peasants have been executed. Weakent by famine. dazed by blows with clubp, bound hand ono foot. the victims are taken in lorric,s outside the towns, shot, and cast into colnln u raves which are barely covered over afterwards, and over which dogs fight for the corpses. The fainilies of the e unfortunate persons can not even secure their burial as they are goteraliy unaware of the time, place, and circumstances of their relatives' death. Thus hundreds of fervent patriots have been lost to the country. The nulnber of per.3ons executed since the occupation of the .country may be estimated at 4.000. All these horrors, as we have said, have been commtitted without trial or sentence. With no one to defend then, Ipoliti'al prisoners are not evell per. mitted to see their relatives. The (lark. damp. icy cellars in whiel they lie until their execution are nothing but tombs. Many become inzaue. On the night of February 13, 1923. alone. 92 lper.ons wvre taken from tie prison at Tiflis and 4hot beclai.:e in the far-ooff district of ';ourla tihe leader of the Bolshevist expeditionary corps hald been killed. On May 20. this year. there were expected. again without trial, 13 well.known Gorailn military men, generals and staff officers, of who one wa4 the le:idr of ai Ilitleal party. all aeciwed of organiz.ing a rising against the oceupationi authorities. Accounts of both11 these naws execuions were published in thinoiolal press. Itit slienco Is observed regarding all tlie others. years. extended their netivitie. to the IPr-ovinces of sviftlihiia. ihov.sourethfa, Gonria. and Kakhetia. Whole rout ryidv-, have been laln) wate. lloUer burned, and numerous families completely exterminsate , 1'mrsued moy tin T'ehekits. the people seek shelter ii the iniutlntoin.Tie Teleka and the exlpditionary nietachlntl4 have. 'lurim: the last two
NATIONAL REPUBUO OF
ZOuoLU
197
Every manifestation of national activity is ruthlessly repressed. Art, literature, and the Georgian language are in peri. Not only is freedom of speech nonexistent, riot only is all sentiment stifled, but the faithful are prevented from practicing their religion, as most places of worship have been closed. The ministers of religion, including the highest dignitaries of the church, have been thrown Into prison. The prisons are filled with workers, peasants, schoolmasters, and students. This Is not all. Hundreds of them have been sent Into exile to the frozen regions of northern Russia. Many have been seized as hostages and are in danger of being shot as a reprisal for any act of hostility against the occupation authorities. In addition to imprisonment and deportation, a system of torture has been applied similar to that resorted to in the Middle Ages; but tortures of a more modern kind, such as a pretense of shooting, are also employed. These tortured are inflicted In order to force the victims to renounce the liberty and independence of their country. In the workshops and in the factories the Georgian workpeople who refuse to join the Communist Party are immediately dismissed. For this reason unemployment is very great in all the Georgian towns. In the country peasants who will not submit to communism are dispossessed of their land and stock, which are distributed anong other persons, mainly nonGeorgians. With support of the occupation authorities the property of the people is seized by foreign elements. Georgian manufacturers, traders, and peasants have no guaranty against spoliation of all that they possess. For them law and justice have ceased to exist. The import duties levied by Moscow paralyze the trade of the country, and tbere is no longer any activity in the ports. Foreign traders and manufacturers are also subjected to such persecution that they gradually prefer to leave the country, and this fact hinders the economic development of Georgia. The Georgian people will never consent to the occupation of the country by the Russiau Army. They know that they are fighting for their national liberty and indpendence. Representatives of the civilized world! Listen to the cry of a people Of ancient civilization which desires to remain independent. This nation Is threatened with physical exterminhation Its material and maral wealth is fast disappearing, and its national home Is in danger of destruction. The committee for Georgian Independence confidently hopes that the Leagie of Nations, that supreme organ of justice. will raise an nuthorliative voice against the acts of violence conmitted by the masters of present-day Russia
against the Georgian people.
Tim CoMMInTTEE You GEoRoIAN IN'E.DE.E.
TIFLis, May 25, 1923.

LFTFMt FROM TIlE PRESIDENT OF TIlE NATIONAL. GOVERNMENT OF GXORGIA TO TH1E PRESIDENT OF THE FiFli! ASSEMBLY OF TIlE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
PARIS, September 9, 192;. Mr. PRE.IDE\T: I have just received the following dispatch froin Gcorgia: "The struggle continues. All of Georgia, witi the exception (of Ttlis 11n1d On the other hand. according to inforlnatlou from lthoritIative sources, Mosco w has decided to rcconquer Georgia 11d1 to tiaiN ed Is inakiltg military preparation. Confirming my telegrain of the 6,th of the current month, I have the honor to beg that yelle so good s to have the case of Georgia entered on the ilgenlda of the general assecinbl.y of tile Aagte of Nations in order that the co lltlt may be Settled ily lieareful 1neal-l ainl to Stop tIL' eflusiolI of the blood of a people wiihliat tlhs ,eaeles'ly tm shako off the yoke of the lllvahvr. Pray :elit, Mr. Pre.Adent, assurances of aiy hiliest collsilerltionf. President of flie Nalional Gor'e'
1t11(1of Batuni, is in the hands of the the side of Batum." Russian troops are arriving from Rnuurgents.
(h oriq.
198
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF oJEWoGIA

Thursday, September 11, 1924--1 a. m.
SITUATION IN GEOROA-MOTION BY TIHE FRENCH, BRITISH, AND BELGIAN DELEGATIONS-
The PRSIDsNT. The French, British, and Belgian delegations have brought forward a motion which they wish to place on the agenda of the present session of the assembly. It must first, of course, be passed to the agenda committee. The motion reads as follows: "The assembly, wishing to renew the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922, by the third assembly regarding Georgia, Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law." M. Paul Boneour (France) wishes to say a few words in explanation of this motion. I call upon M. Paul Boncour to address the assembly. (M. Paul Boncour mounted the platform amidst the applause of the assembly.) M. PAU-, BONCOUn (France). Mr. President, ladles, and gentlemen, at this late hour the assembly may rest assured that I will only keep it a few moments. Indeed, in the matter of the draft resolution, which I have the honor to submit in the name of the British, Belgian, and French delegations, the painful and tragic events which are now taking place form in themselves sufficient comment. The news we read in tne papers an not, of course, be used as an official text for discussion; nevertheless, we can not pretend that we are Ignorant of all that the press tells us of events in Georgia, and we must all surely feel what a blend of pathos and paradox it is that we should be quietly deliberating here upon the interests of peace and the best means of securing peace, while at this moment somewhere in the w)rld a state of war exists, blood Is being shed, massacres tirc taking pace, and cries of agony are once again rising to the heavens. In the face of all that Is happening, the league can not stand Idly by and shirk its duty. The position, I admit, is difficult, because a state of war exists between two states which are not members of the league; but those who, with humane breadth of vision, founded and organized the League of Nations and drew up our common t;,id, the covenant, foresaw that the league, if its field is to be really world.w;,4e, must not take account of Its members only, but must carry out its mission of reconciliation elsewhere and bring within its fold thosrP. states which are not yet members. The proposal I have submitted on behalf of the British, Belgian, and French delegations is, I may inform the assembly, the outcome of an agreement be. tween Mr. McDonald, Prime Minister of Great Britain, and 31. Ilerriot, Prime Minister of France, at the moment of tbcir departure. Tie governmentt of Georgia had addressed a moving appeal to Mr. llerrlot and through him to the league. In their common desire for the welfare of humanity, Mr. MacDonald and M. Herriot, rally agreed, even in the rush of their departure, that the league ought to take up this question. When they left, they instructed me to arrange with Lord larmoor, delegate of the British Empire, to submit this proposal in their name. Tile thing is done. There is nothirig in the proposal which could offend the susceptibliftles of either of the two states concerned; if there had iNeen, I would never have takei upon myself the responsibility of making it. I am one of the many who think that the league will not prforni its fall task until it Includes every vntinn in the world. This proposal is in keeping with the ultimate aim of the league, and no state can take offence at the league's efforts to abolish war and establish justice throughout the world. That is its duly, and it will of course rest with Ihe comnlent em'unittees to consider ways and mearns of giving lralieal effect to this proposal. I will not enter upon that qmstlion now. ime states concerned may eonsidcr themselves honored that the league should gwve tIem credit for thinking thult no stutv, can ignore its appeal or itq determination to bring about the reign of justice In the worl'i. [Loid npphm.e.l The PmR:.sUws. If t!cre is no oposition, the draft resolution will 1e referred to the agenda commitee. (Assent.)
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Saturday, September 20, 1024, 3.30 p. m.

SITUATION IN GEORGIA
199
The chairman, Mr. Enckell (Finland), read a letter In which the president of the assembly referred to the sixth committee for consideration a proposal submitted by the Belgian, british, and French delegations regarding the situation in Georgia. The proposal was as follows: "The assembly, reiterating the resolution adopted on September 22, 1922, by the third assembly, Invites the Council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law." The chairman slid stress on the fact that this proposal was in accordance with a resolution unanimously adopted by the third assembly on September 2"2, 1922. In the light of recent events, and in conformity with article 11 of the covenant, this question was one that concerned the League of Nations. He proposed that a drafting committee should prepare a report which the committee might subsequently submit for the approval of the assembly. It would be stated in this report that the governments of those states members of the league in a position to further by their good offices the task of the council were requested to forward to It such useful information as might enable It to form a correct opinion on the situation !n that part of the world. The league could thus act in a spirit of conciliation and at the same time adhere strictly to the principle of international law. The proposal submitted by the chairman was supported by the Belgian, French, British, and Italian delegates. M. Ie Brouckr (Belgium) explained that, although Belgium, France, and the British Emprle had asked that the resolution of two years ago should be repeated, they had not wished thereby to remind the council of its duty. Recerat events, however, in Georgia had created a new situation. It was of Importance that 'lie attention not so much of the couicll as of public opinion should be attracted at a time when the League of Nations was assembled for the purpose of seeking a ieans of consolidating peace. M. Freire d'Andrade (Portugal) expressed his agreement with the Belgian delegate, but he doubted whether, since the adoption of the resolution, the council had been able to intervene "by any peaceful mans in accordance with the rules of international law" it the affairs of Georgia, with a view to assisting in the reestablishnient of a normal situation in that country. M. Ilofnieyr (South Africa) asked th, same question andi exj.resscd the desire that before the subcommittee began its labors those members of the league which had submitted this proposal should furaigh soine information on the existing situation in Georgia and should make practical suggestions. He believed that a platonic resolution would demonstrate the inability of i;,, League of Natl'is to deal with this matter. Prof. Gilbert Mui-ray (British Empire) said that two crlticIsms had been mnade vith regard t, the proposal: (hie to the effect that it was Incorrect, mnd the other that it was ineffective. With regard to the first, litlImnted out that the British Government had carefully avoided giving rise to suspicions (t this nature. The formula of acknowledgment of the Union of the Soviet Republics was couched in very careful language. The words were: 6The British Governumeut recognizes the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as the de jure rulers of tlise terrtores of tie( old JIussian Empire which acknowledge their authority." There was therefore nothing contradictory between the de jure recognition given by tileBritish Government and the iroposa;l now submitted. The resolution did not prejudice the question of deterinlling whether Georgia did or did not form part the Idnton of SovIet itelublIes. of 'Tlie fact remained tliat a swte of war exi,4te ili oe!' part of the world, ami 111fultilinent of its duly the league (-ould not remain Indifferent to it. Did tlieresolutio;i decide the qmi,'lioii as to whether it wii:itcivil war or an ordit:'ry war? It had buen drawn tipdignedly, in terms to which l) neltlicr Georgia nor the Union of the, Soviet Itepubllcs could take ex-e'pion.
It was nierely a queslil of intervening il a mnaimer ii atc'iordite with tile
riles of international law.
200
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF
EOROGIA
With regard to the question of Ineffectiveness, It was evident that the League of Nations could not follow up this resolution by material action. Georgia could not be allowed to hope for action of this nature. It was, nevertheless, the duty of the league to endeavor to restore peace. Sir Joseph Cook (Australia) asked if any appeal had recently been made by Georgia to the council of the League of Nations. The chairman read a note dated September 9, 1924, communicated by the secretariat, from which it was evident that two documents relating to the situation In Georgia had reached the assembly. M. de Brouckere (Belgium) stated that lie was In possession ot two othei documents from the national Government of Georgia dated September 9 and 10, 1924, respectively. lie drew the attention of the committee to the fact that these letters had been dispatched by the President of the national Government of Georgia, the Government which had been recognized de Jure by the majority of states. M. Aubert (France) agreed with the statements made by the British delegate an%' by the chairman. Ile recommended the sixth committee to adopt the chairma,,'s proposal. Mr. Hofmeyr (South Africa) proposed the following draft: "That the sixth committee resolves that the attention of the council be drawn ot the resolution adopted by the thiir assembly on September 22, 1922." (The text of this resolution to be inserted here, as follows:) "The assembly, having considered the situation In Georgia, invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in that part of the world, so tha' it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help In the restoration of that country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of International law." (Then would be added:) "And that the council be urged to take such steps as It may deem practicable to give effect thereto." M. Freire D'Andrade (Portuge.l seconded the proposal of the South African delegate, but suggested the delhtton fr.)m the end of the resolution ,)f the words "by any peaceful means In accordance with the rules of International law." Count Bonin-Longare (Italy) stated that the Italian delegation would al. ways be glad to support any Initiatives Intended to recentt bloodshed in any country. He therefore accepted the proposal, but eniphasized the extreme delicacy of the problem and the difficulties which were likely to be encountered. He thought, moreover, that the council should be allowed the greatest freedom In the choice of the moment and the means in order that It might be guided by that prudence which the situation demanded. Mr. MacDonald (Canada) stated that they had before them three proposals emanating, respectively, from the chairman. the South African delegate, and the Fl rtuguese delegate. Ht seconded the proposal submitted by the chairman. Sir -fames Allen (New Zealand) wished to know the exact position of GeorgiA with regard to the League of Nations. Had not Georgia applied tobe a member of the league? If he recollected aright there was some question concerning the stability of the frontiers of Georgia, and on this account tle application fer admission to the league had not been favorably received. The speaker agreed with the Canadian representative. The question must not be treated precipitately. M. de Brouckere (Belgium) explained the reason why Georgia had not been admitted to the League of Nations. Her request had been submitted In 1920. and de Jure recognition took place subsequently to that date. The subcommittee of the fifth committee had unanimously requested .her admission. but in the plenary session the opinicn had prevailed that It would be advisable to postpone the admission of Georgia for one year. Care had even been taken that the country should be admitted Immediately to the te hnlcal organization,; of the League of Nations. No one had thought of contesting the fact that Georgia was a nation, and had, indeed, been one since the time of Queen Thamar. There wasro question, therefore, of the war being a civil one. Mr. MacDonald (Canada) again supported the proposal for the appointment of a subcommittee.
14
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA The committee chose the following: M. de Brouck~re (Belgium), Prof. Gilbert Murray (British Empire), Mr. MacDonald (Canada), M. Aubert (France), Count Bonin-Longare (Italy). On the proposal of Prof. Gilbert Murray, the chairman agreed to form, part of this subcommittee, which has decided to convene immediately. Monday, September 22, 1924-10 a. m.
SITUATION IN OEORGIA-ADOPTION OF TIE REPORr OF THE SUBCOMMITlTE
The chairman announced that the subcommittee appointed at the previous meeting had drawn up its report on thr proposal dealing with the position ia Georgia. If the committee raised no objection, he proposed that this report should be submitted to the assembly. An exchange of views took place between Doctor NavseL% (Norway), M.de Brouckere (Belgium), Sir James Allen (New Zealand), and Count BoninLongare (Italy). The last named proposed that the wording of one sentence in the report should be changed. The committee adopted the report with this amendment and, on the chairman's proposal, appointed Mr. Macdonald (Canada) rapporteur to the asdembly.
REPORT OF TIHE SIXTH COMMITTEE TO THE ASSEMBLY
The assembly has referred to the sixth committee for consideration a proposal submitted by the e-elegations of Belgium, the British Empire, and France, in the following terms: "The assembly, reiterating the resolbitton adopted on September 22, 1922, by the third assembly, with reference to Georgia, invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in this part of the world, so that it may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help in the restoration of this country to normal conditions by any peaceful means in accordance with the rules of international law." This proposal Is a textual reproduction of the resolution adopted in 1922. The third assembly, prompted by feelings which we are sure our colleagues' all share at the present time, entrusted to the c',uneil the duty of watching the situation and seizing any favorable opporttvu'y to improve it by peaceful means in accordance with international law. The main features of the situation remain unaltered, and the tragic events which are in this moment taking place in Georgia must bring back to us the anxieties of the third assembly. As the resolution of 1922 is already on record, we may venture, in addition, to expressethe hope that the governments of the states members of the league may perhaps be able to assist the council, either with information or by exercise of their influence for peace so far as circumstances may permit.
RESOLUTION
The assembly decides to authorize the transmission to thb council of the report of the sixth committee regarding the situation in Georgia (Document A. 95, 1924, VII), In order that the council may be able, at a time and in the manner it may coi'sider the most opportune, to take into consideration the indications It contains." Thursday, September 25, 1924-4 p. m.
THE SITUATION IN GEORGIA-REPORT OF TIHE SIXTH COMMITrEE-RESOLUTION
The PSESIDENT. We now pass to the fifth item on our agenda, the situation in Georgia (Annex 15, Document A. 95, 1924, VII). I invite M. Enckell, chairman of the sixth committee, and Mr. E. M. MacDonald, rapporteur, to take their places on the platform. (M. Enekell, chairman of the sixth committee, and Mr. M. M. MacDonald, rapporteur, took their places on the platform.) The PRESIDENT. The rapporteur will address the assembly.

Mr. E. M. (AoDoNs~w (Canada, rapporteur). The question of the situation in Georgia, which has been dealt with by the sixth committee, was put forward by the delegations of the British Empire, France, and Belgium. The report of the sixth committee is before you. Perhaps you will permit me, in a very few words, to outline the present situation in that unhappy country. A proud people, which for ceturines had maintained Its independence, became merged in the Russian nation a little over a hundred years ago. After the Great War, in common with a great many other countries in a similar position, the Georgian people asserted their independence on May 26, 1918, and adopted a constitution on the lines of a democrat republic. That nation so reconstituted was, on January 11, 1920, recognized by the supreme council, which was then composed of Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and Belgium. In view of later events, it is significant to note that on May 7 of the same year Russia herself recognized de Jure the independence of Georgia, using the following words In the treaty in that regard: "Russia recognizes without reserve the independence and sovereignty of the Georgian state, and willingly renounces the sovereign rights which belong to Russia as regards the Georgian people and terrain." On January 27, 1921, the allied powers recognized the state of- Georgia de Jure at t Le same time as Esthonla and Latvia, which urte now members of the league. Similar recognition was extended by a large number of other countries--Poland, Rumania, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Argentina, Panama, Haiti, Mexico, Liberia, Luxembourg, and Siam. On February 25, 1921, the minister plenipotentiary of the new state presented his credentials to the President of the French Republic, and since that date the Georgian legation has been functioning in Paris. What then happened-and it is an almost unprecedented action in the history of the worldwas that Russia, In spite of her recognition of Georgia, preceded to disregard the step which she had taken and to attack Georgia. Since then the position of that country has appealed to the sympathy of all the nations of the world. That the status of Georgia, as consitutei, has been further recognized and approved-is seen by the fact that no less distinguished a person that the present Prime Minister of France, M. Herriot, in 1922, brought the situation of Georgia, as it then was, before the French Chamber of Deputties, where his statement with regard to the position of affairs was approved by the then Premier, M. Poincar6. The Premier Chancellor of the Exchequer in Great Britain, Mr. Snowden, brought the situation before the British House of Commons in July of last year. While it may be said, in considering this matter, that Great Britain has recognized the Soviet Government in Russia, it must at the same time be borne in mind that that recognition was limited, and was coupled with a resirvation, because Great Britain only recognized the Union of Soviet Republics as being the de Jure government of such territories of the former Russian Empire as recognized its authority. As far as Georgia is concerned, it seems to me, therefore, that she has a full right to claim the sympathy of all tha other nations of the world. The representations which were made to our committee on behalf of that unhappy State disclosed the following facts: "The sufferings of the Georgian people are beyond all enduranc--; the terror, ivhlch in Rusia is relaxed at times, not only does not know any period of relaxation in Georgia, but is becoming more and moru, violent; deportations, imprisonment, tortures in the dungeons of the Cheka, execution without trial of representatives of all classes are more and more numerous; the arrested political people are treated as bandits, and intellectuals and workmen are deprived of all means of work; Georgians being hostile to the power, their admission to commercial and industrial enterprises as well as into the public services is hindered by every means; the clergy are persecuted for the exercise of their religious duties, and for having put into the true light the actual state of affairs. The chief of the Georgian Church, Patriarch Cathollcos Ambroslus, was condemnedsituation, years' Imprisonment and is now in close confinement." This is the to many and I am sure it is one which will appeal to every member of this assembly. It is therefore with full confidence that I submit to you the conclusions of the second committee. [Applause.] The PRFISIDENT. Prof. Gilbert Murray, delegate of the British Empire, will address the assembly. Prof. GILBERT MUBTLXY (British Empire). I rise on behalf of the British delegation merely to emphasize the purely humanitarian character of this resolu-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA tion. There is no question of interference in the domestic affairs of the Russian Empire. There is no question whatever of using any form of military pressure to bring about a settlement of the fighting in Georgia in one way or the other. But every war or threat of war is the concern of the League of Nations, and if the wholesale slaughter and devastation now taking place in Georgia is not technically a war, it Is at least a terrible example of huwan suffering; and the League is concerned, according to article 23 of the covenL~lt, in endeavoring to alleviate the sufferings of mankind. We ask the council to watch for any opportunity that may offer to restore normal conditions in that afflicted region by any peaceful means, in accordance with the rules of international law. The league wishes to offer its good services to both sides in reestablishing normal conditions. I am afraid that we can do no more than that, but I feel convinced that we can do no less. It has been suggested, as Mr. E. M. MacDonald pointed out, that the policy of Great Britain has been inconsistent on this matter. On January 27, 1021, Great Britain recognized Georgian de Jure as an independent State, and this year the British Government has recognized the Soviet Government; but, as Mr. E. M. MacDonald pointed out, the words of that recognition were very carefully, and I think correctly, chosen. I venture to suggest that it would not have been proper for Ills Majesty's Government to interfere in the burning question then at issue between the Soviet Government and that of Georgia. At any rate, the recognition was expressedJ in very careful and correct language. Ills Majesty's Government recognized the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics as being the de jure government of those territories of the former Russian Empire which recognized its authority. It went no further. One word more. It is only too often the fate of this assembly to be faced by problems it can not solve and by human suffering which it can not, with its present resources, cure or even alleviate. The question arises in such cases as to what the league ought to do. It is perfectly clear that we must not make promises which we can not fulfill; it is clear that it would be cruel to encourage hopes which will not be realized. But surely it is equally clear that we can not simply turn away our eyes from this suffering and pretend, for diplomatic reasons, a callous Indifference which we do not feel. I think we can only do, in this and similar cases, what Is recommended !n the resolution before us. We must beg the sufferers to be patient to the very limits of human patience; we must acknowledge the duty which for the time being we can not fulfill, and we must ask the council to watch for every opportunity that may present itself of offering effective mediation and bringing peace to the regions where there is now war. [Applause.) The PRESIDENT. Count Bonin-Longare, delegate of Italy, will address the assembly. Count P.oNI.-LONOARE (Italy). Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen, the fifth assembly has had a proposal laid before It in which the couJcll is asked to follow attentively the course of events in Georgia with a view to restoring the country to normal conditions and putting a stop te bloodshed. It is clear that, at a time when the assembly of the league Is in session and is engaged in constructing its noble edifice of universal peace, it can not turn a deaf ear to rumors of war and strife. The league would be failing in its duty if, while drafting and codifying the doctrines which are to establish the peace of the world on unshakable foundations, it affected to ignore the tragedy of a war at the very gates of Europe. There can thus be no two opinions in regard to the proposal put forward by the 1?elgian, French, and Britikh delegations, and the Italian delegation wishes to support it, more especially as the rapporteur has given us a very timely reminder that we should not be adopting a new resolution, but simply reviving cne which was unanimously adopted by the third assembly two years ago. It is, however, one of the immutable laws of international politics that countries can not allow sentiment alone to gu;de them, and though we are anxious to do all in our power to save every sIngle life we call, we must remember that we are on difficult ground and that a false step might land uwq in a very awkward predicament. The situation of the two countries in conflict is such that the mediating action which we propose to exercise might, notwithstanding our disinterested motives, encounter most serious difficulties. We must therefore act with the utmost caution.
W2(l
Accordingly I am glad to see from the report before us that the council is allowed wide discretion as to choice of time and methods. . I The council, wlich is preeminently a political body, will be able to consider 'the situation from the twofold standpoint of sentiment and reason. It can steer a course through the shoals of this difficult problem and so attain without difficulty the humane and peaceful aim which we are pursuing. (Applause.] The PRESID. r. M. de Brouck~re, delegate of Belgium, will address the assembly. M. DE Bnoucxftn (Belgium). Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen, I should like briefly to express my approval of the prudent counsel which the honorable delegate of Italy has just given us and to say how sincerely I share the hopes expressed by the British delegate. In this matter, as in every other, caution is essential. Not only in the Caucasus, but everywhere else, the league may flud itself on treacherous ground. We must first and foremost ask the council to exercise in the future, as it has done with such conspicuous success in the past, that political wisdom and foresight to which reference has just been made and which, as experience has shown, is very rarely synonymous with inaction. If the league tacitly allows a whole nation to fight and perish without taking the slightest heed, Its inaction would, believe me, prove so serious that, far from merely avoiding incidents, it would provoke the most serious difficulties. I venture to say that the league's policy would be singularly inconsistent and indeed derisive if, at a time when the foremost Intellects of the day are devoting themselves heart and soul to the study of the problem of peace, it should stand aloof, if it sheltered behind a cloud of abstractions and shut its eyes to the fact that war is raging at our gates. It has been rightly said-and those who are most anxious to intervene and prevetit war are obliged to recognize the fact-that at the present juncture we van do very little. But should we on ti 's account remain silent? Surely not. There is a certain virtue in words themselves. Things which we can not do now we will be able to do when the conscience of the world has given us greater power, and it is this conscience which we must awaken and to which we must appeal. We mvst, by unanimously adopting the resolution before us, speak a word of hope to the oppressed. We must tell them that we kuow that war, unjust war, is raging, and that sooner cr later, as soon as the time comes, we will act, we will do our utmost, we will see that justice !s done. (Applause.] Tb PRESIDENT. MN.Georges Bonnet, delegate of France. will address the aembly. M. GEoRGEs Boimr (France). Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen, I should like to say a few words in support of the eloquent speeches which have just been made. The draft resolution in question has been submitted jointly by the Belgian, British, and French delegations, and you will remember that it was eloquently defended in the assembly by M. Paul Boncour. As M. de Brouckre has just emphasized, the League of Nations can not remain silent in the presence of sufferings such as are now being endured by the Georgian people. The league must make its voice heard, and this is the aim of the draft resolution which you are asked to adopt. It is true that we must exercise the utmost caution. Legal considerations must be taken in conjunction with sentimental ones. We claim that the text before you takes both Into consideration, and accordingly the French delegation associates itself with what has been said by the previous speakers, and asks you to adopt the resolution. [Applause.) The PRESIDENT. Does anyone else wish to speak? The discussion Is closed.. The sixth committee asks that its report should be transmitted by the assembly to the council in order that the latter may be able to take it into considera. tion at the time and in the manner which it may consider the most opportune. On this understanding, I put the following resolution to the vote: "The assembly decides to authorize the transmisison to the council of the report of the sixth committee regarding the situation In Georgia, in order that the council t may be able, at a time and in the manner It may consider the most opportune, o take Into consideration the indications it contains." (The resolution was unanimously adopted.)
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROIA ANE 1
205
DELEGATION OF THE GEOROIAN REPuBLIc, 32 Queen's Gate, Lo'don, S. W. 7, September 1, 1920.
In the name of the Government of the Republic of Georgia, I have the honor to submit to the League of Nations the unanimous desire of Georgia for admiesion to, and membership of, the league, with all the duties and rights thereto attached, the which are based on ..he covenant of the said league. The reasons which lead the Georgian Republic to take this step, as well as the political ends at which she aims, are set forth in an explanatory memorandum which will shortly be submitted, with Its annexes, to the secretary of the league. The council of the League of Nations is urgently begged not to refuse its cooperation in laying the above-mentioned matters before the assembly at its meeting in Geneva. TCHEIDZE, President of the Constituent Assembly of Georgia and of the Georgian Delegation at the Peace Conference.
To the COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
ANNEX 2 EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM PRESENTED TO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
LoxNoN, September 18, 1920. Amongst the nations emancipated by the events of the Great War and by the revolutions which followed Georgia, together with Armenia, is the most ancient. She is also the nation which has kept longer than any the last vestige of her independence; indeed, she was not annexed to Russia until the beginning of the nineteenth century, so that this foreign domination lasted but a little over a hundred years. From a geographical point of view Georgia Is very (stinctly separated from Russia, that is to say from that vast plain stretching from the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea to the Baltic and the Arctic Oe'an by that natural barrier formed by the chain of the great Caucasian Mountains. From the ethnographical point of view the G, organ people, Leing in no wise Slav, are altogether unlike the Russians. They are a different type, as entirely different as are their language, their traditions, their customs, and their manners. Although the majority are, like the Russians, professedly of the Greek Orthodox Church, the Georgian nation, even in this particular domain, has never mingled with the Russians. Her ecclesiastical traditions were maintained even under Russian rule; In spite of the temporary suppression of the ancient rights of the Georgian Church Georgia restored this autocephalous of the Georgian Church on the morrow of the pan-Russian revolution in 1917. These primordial facts taken into consideration, it is easy to understand that with the crumbling of the former Russian Empire in 1917-18 a people such as the Georgians, homogeneous, with pronounced ethnical characteristics, with feelings of nationality aroused, having a still vivid remembrance of a freedom of age-long duration, possessed of a precisely defined territory, alert, and already initiated into political life, would of necessity have to constitute themselves an Independent state or otherwise descend Into Inevitable chaos. This movement In Georgia was altogether spontaneous and without precedent unanimous. Already during the last decades of Russian rule an exceedingly strong democratic current had made itself felt in Georgia; It was at its height during the revolution which convulsed Russia In 1905-6. Toward 1917 it reached complete maturity, and is the chief reason of the stability of the institutions created by independent Georgia. National sentiment, fertilized and renewed by the ideal of democracy, facilitated the application of this Ideal, acting as a sure basis, a settled framework, a medium coherent and united In spite of the differences in class and conditions. This rapid outline Is sufficient to show how not only inevitable, in view of political circumstances, but also essentially necessary was the solemn act of May 26, 1918. by which the National Council proclaimed the independence of -Georgia and the installation of her Government.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Since this date, and up to the present time, political activity in Georgia has been entirely devoted to the work of her internal organization, and the defense of the Republic against aggression from without. Menaced and often attacked, Georgia has had to face numerous foes. at the same time suffering from the inevitable repercussion of the World War, and the agitated and violent civil strife in Russia. But neither the multifarious dangers nor the forces which menaced Georgia from without have turned her aside from the work of organizing the Republic. This task, resolutely approached from the beginning, has been continued without truce and has resulted in the creation of a governmental body, an administrative, military, and financial organization, in the necessary reforms In Justice and public education, in the better working of the public services. Georgia has succeeded in securing order within the limits of her territory, and is guaranteeing political liberty to all her citizens, thus letting them experience the priceless boons of independence after the servitude of a century. This constituent assembly of Georgia (elected by universal suffrage) which assembled on the 12th of March, 1919, and which replaced the provisional parliament, was together with the government the principal agent in this work of transformation and equipment. The constituent assembly opened on the 26th of May, 1918, with the solemn and unanimous coi Armation of the act proclaiming the independence of Georgia. The basis of the political constitution of Georgia is already elaborated in so much as the principle of republicanism has been adopted, public authority Is regularly constituted, and representative government by the people organized. The urgent necessity of reforms in administration, in agrarian and other matters, and the vicissitudes of the moment were the cause of inevitable delay in the establishment of a constitutional charter, of which the plan already drawn up by a special commission of the constituent assembly will shortly be submitted for the consideration of this assembly. This continuous struggle for existence, and the persistent labor devoted to the consolidation of the Republic impressed on the minds of even those wbose preconceived ideis and interests were opposed to it the fact of the creation of a Georian Republic, strongly organized, ardently supported, with a government eierclslng full power. It was not tihl after the definite setback experienced in the efforts to restore the Russian Empire n its former foundations that the independence of Georgia was recognized--le facto-by the four great allied powers (France. Great Britain, Italy, Japan). The decision of the supreme council, relating to this (January 11, 1920), was received with the greatest enthusiasm in Georgia. Later, by a clause of the peace treaty signed at Moscow, Soviet Russia accorded to Georgia without reserve formal and definite recognition. The evacuation by the Allies in July, 1920, of the Province of Datum and the installation in their stead of Georgian administration was d further proof of the confidence inspired by this Government. Rallying round the bantier of western democracy, the Georgian nation must naturally look with special sympathy on the formation of that political system born of the war and destined to paralyze war which the League of Nations is to Incarnate, which constitutes the most remarkable and the most fertile effort known to humanity on its way toward future unity. In asking admission into the League of Nations Georgia is in no way actuated by hopes of material gain in any form, political or otherwise; she only aspires to the consecration, by the community of civilized nations, of her efforts toward liberty and democratic order. To be associated from the outset in this task, in common with all those nations desirous of peace and solidarity, such is Georgia's most sincere wish. The Georgian people desire to take upon themselves as large a share of this work as their strength and conditions allow, and the Georgian Government is persuaded that the political and geographical situation of Georgia is of such a nature as to give a certain importance to the participation of this nation in the policy of international peace, of which policy t' e directing organ will be the League of Nations. The League of Nations will Indeed only be strong through the sincere and efficacious adherence of all political factors capable of Influencing and guiding public opinion in different countries.
mm
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Above all, It Is Important that the authority of the League of Nations should be established in those countries which, through their geographical situation or special political conditions, might easily become centers of complications which would eventually affect the political life of the vast European "ensemble." It* is not exaggerated to affirm that such is also the position of the Caucasian Isthmus. Independence and political stability are necessary to the countries of which the isthmus is composed (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaidjan) if it is desired that the new Turkey and Persia should develop freely without being perpetually menaced from the north; if it is desired that the middle east, the status of which is in process of being settled, should not again become the prey of rival controversy. The obvious function of transcaucasia in international politics will be to separate those areas of power and influence which have a natural tendency to enter into conflict, and the consolidation of the Transcaucasian States is In this respect of an Importance reaching far beyond the frontiers of these States. Georgia being one of the chief elements In this consolidation, her admission into the League of Nations will facilitate the task which at present encumbers her in Transcaucasian politics, while the authority of the league itself will be thereby strengthened in those areas where, as has been said, this authority Is so necessary. There is yet another aspect of the problem which gives an international bearing to Transcaucasia, and to the question of the admlsshgn of Georgia into the League of Nations, this is the communication, through Georgia, with Persia, Armenia, and central Asia. There are very few commercial routes whose importance as an international artery is so pronounced as that route which, via the Transcaucasian States, unites the west with the middle east and central Asia. The best guaranty for the future safeguarding of the international nature of this route to the profit of all concerned lies in the help and guidance which the League of Nations is able to give for this purpose to Transcaucasia, and the reception of Georgia into the league will most obviously facilitate for the latter the above-indicated task. It Is, however, to bo foreseen that the organization and perfecting of the great lines of communication between nations will be one of the chief preoccupations of the league. The Transcaucaslan States, freed from foreign domination, united in that which constitutes their common interest, bound to the community of peoples by obligations set forth in the covenant of the League of Nations, will act as one of her chief mainstays in the east. This final solution of the Caucasian problem, a solution so in keeping with the principles which animate the League of Nations, which will be powerfully strengthened by the admission into the said league of Georgia, whose position and precedents assure her a special r6le in Transcaucasian politics. The Georgian Government deems that, apart from the above-mentioned considerations, the very principles which should regulate international life, directed from henceforth toward unity and coordination, militate sufficiently in themsclvcs for the admission into the family of free peoples of an ancient nation, once the outpost of Christianity in the east, now one of the outposts of democracy, a nation which aspires merely to labor, diligent and free, in her own domain, her lawful and Incontestable heritage. ANNEX 3
ACT OF INDEPENDENCE OF GEORGIA
The Georgian 'National Council, during its plenary sitting of May 26, 1918, declared as follows: For several centuries Georgia existed as a free and independent State. At the end of the eighteenth century Georgia voluntarily allied herself with Russia, with the stipulation that the latter should Drotect her from enemies without. In the course of the great Russian revolution conditions arose which resulted In the disorganization of the entire military front and the abandonment of Transcaucasia by the Russian Army.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OP GEORGIA Thus, left to her own devices, Georgia, and with her all Transcaucasia, took Into their hands the direction of their affairs creating the necessary organs for this purpose; but under pressure from exterior forces the links which united Transcaucaslan nationalities were broken and the political unity, of Trans-caucasia was thus dissolved. The present position of the Georgian people makes it imperatively necessary ,that Georgia should create a political organization of her own, in order that she may escape from the yoke of her enemies and lay a solid foundation for her free development. Accordingly the Georgian National Council, elected by the national assembly of Georgia on November 22 (December 5), 1917, declares: (1) In future the Georgian, people will hold sovereign power and Georgia will be a State enjoying all the rights of a free and Independent State. (2) Independent Georgia's form of political organization will be a democratic Republic. (3) In the event of lnternatlhx.:i conflict Georgia will always remain neutral. (4) The Georgian democratic Republic will apply itself to establishing friendly relations with all nations, and especially with neighboring nationalities and states. (5) The democratic Georgian Republic offers to all Inhabitants of her territory a wide field for free development. (0) The democratic Georgian Republic guarantees to all citizens within her territory civil and political rights, without distinction of nationality, religion, social position, or sex. (7) Until the convocation of the constituent assembly the National Council, with the addition of representatives of the minorities and the provisional government responsibie to the National Council, is at the head of all Georgian administration.
ANNEX
On the 12th of March, 1919, the constituent assembly of Georgia confirmed the preceding act In the following terms: "At its first sitting of the 12th of March, 1919, the constituent assembly of Georgia, elected by citizens of both sexes, according to the direct, equal, universal, secret, and proportional electoral system, proclaims before the world and history that it fully confirms and approves the act of the independence of Georgia, declared at Tiflis, by the Georgian National Council, May 26,1918." Awmmx 5 PARIS, January 27, 1921. To His Excellency M. GUEoUETCKOur, Minfster of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Georgla, Paris. Mr. MINIsTER: After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the supreme council, under date of January 26, has resolved to recognize de jure the independence of Georgia as soon as this country should formally express the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27, to address to me the official request of the Government and the people of Georgia to become recognized de Jure by the allied powers. I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was unanimous in deciding to recognize de jure the Georgian Government. The allied powers are happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy with which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward Independence and the admiration inspired in them by the work it has already accomplished. Be pleased to accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard. BRAN%, ANNEX 7
MEMORANDUIM OF THE OLROIAN GOVERNMENT ON THE INVASION OF OSOROIA BY THE ARMIES OF THE RUSSIA OF" THE SOVIETS
On the 19th of March, 1921, the Government of the Georgian Republic, which was holding Its power by the will of the people, freely expressed at the universal
NATIONAL RBPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
209
-suffrage, was constrained to leave Its country. It was brought to do this through the occupation of Georgia by the armies of the Russia of the soviets, which, in violating the liberty and independence of the people, deprived its government of the possibility of exercising its functions on its national soil. Hereunder, a brief outline of the events which preceded the occupation of Georgia by the enemy. From the first day of Its existence, the Georgian Republic employed all its efforts to maintain peace with its neighbors. The people had confided the organization of Its state to the group which, since a quarter of a century, had constantly been at the head of the political movement of Georgia and had represented the country in the four Doumas of the Empire. The confidence of the people possessed by the government, which commanded a majority of more than 80 per cent at the constitutent assembly, placed the Georgian Republic under shelter from the interior crises which might have resulted from the quarrel of the parties. This security of the country ,was besides assured by the great reforms effected conformably to the quasiunanimous will of the people. In these conditions, the existence of the Republic could be menaced only by exterior forces, which imposed upon the Georgian Government extreme prudence in its foreign policy. The rapprochement of the Republic of Transcaucasia and the consolidation of relations with the neighboring countries as well as with the powers of Europe; these were the principal aims of this policy. But, faithful t 9 its duty of defending the independence of the country, the Government of the Georgian Republic could not permit any of its neighbors to impose its will or its laws on the Republic. or to dictate to it such or such other politics toward the countries of Europe. This circumstance did not fall to Incite against Georgia the hate of the Government of Moscow, who wanted to extend its domination on all of Transcaucasia in order to be able to use it as a political weapon. Before the formal refusal of the Georgian Government to become an agent of Moscow and to engage itself in the politics of imperialistic adventures of Soviet Russia. the Bolsheviksm declared that ths government was an agent of the entente. The "sovietization" of Georgia became an essential element of Bolshevik politles in Asia MiPor. After the defeat of the numerous tentatives to arrive at this aim through the medium of insurrections and of plots organized by the emissaries of Moscow and paid with its gold, the government of the Soviets, despite the treaty of peace which it had signed with Georgia on May 7, 1920, decided to conquer this country by the force of arms. In December, 1920, the commander of the Eleventh Russian Army, Hecker, was charged to present a report on the military forces necessary for the conquest of Georgia. In his report, in great detail, he demonstrated that his army could not succeed in effecting this conquest except on condition that the Government of Angora showed Itself favorable to this enterprise. The Bolsheviks therefore had to adjourn the invasion of Georgia. However, from this time on their troops began to mass themselves at its frontiers. All the protestations of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Georgia remained ineffectual. In order to evade the Nsar which threatened to break out the Georgian Govcrnment attempted to elucidate the aims pursued by Moscow In Transcaucasia; it solicited Its admission to the Russo-Turkish confereti~e which was to be held at Moscow last February. This proposition was left without answer by the government of the soviets. The steps undertaken by the Georgian Governmnut to guard against possible complications on the side of Armenta, at that time Wready soviet ized, were suecessful; the Government of Eivan consented to reguiita amiably the litigeous questions existing between the two Republics, and the vocationin of an Armeno-Georgian conference at Tiflis was fixed for the 15th of February. However, on February 11, the Russian troops forming a part of the Eleventh Army, invaded Georgia from the Armenian side. Mr. Scheinman, representative of the soviet government at Tiflis, declared to the Georgian Government that Russia knew nothing of this attack and that ;t was undertaken by the Armenian Government. At the same time the Georgian Government received from Mr. Chaverdoff, the repre.sentative of Soviet Armenia, a not less formal declaration, according to which Armenia was entirely unconnected with this offensive.
'20
'NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
The facts prove that, of these two assertions, that of Mr. Chaverdoff was the true one; in the course of the battles engaged in below Tiflis the Georgian troops made many prisoners. The examinations they underwent demonstrated that they were all natives of the central provinces of Russia and belonged to regular units of the armies of Moscow. It Is therefore not Armenia but Russia of the soviets which sent forces against Georgia the 11th of February from the side of tile Armenian frontier. On February 15 new detachments of the Eleventh Army, reinforced by units of cavalry, crossed the frontier of Georgia from the side of Azerbaldjan. Deploying all it4 energy to repulse the invader, the Georgian Government attempted to stop ie war through diplomatic channels. On tile 16th of February the President of the Georgian Government attempted to enter Into communication with Moscow by direct telegraph wire, but Mr. Carakhan, assistant to the Commissary of Foreign Affairs, even though he was in the wire at Moscow, refused to speak with the President. The next day the radiotelegraph station of Tiflis received a message through which Mr. Chicherin, pretending to be ignorant of the fact that Georgia had been attacked by the Russian Army, proposed to the Georgian Governmeut his mediation between Georgia and the other Republics of the Transcaucasia While entertaining no illusions on the sincerity of this message, the Georgian Government replied that it accepted the proposition of Mr. Chicherin on condition that the Russian Government recall its armies from the Georgian territory. Nevertheless, the operations were developing. The chargedirected from two sides against Tiflis had encountered an heroic resistance on the part of the Georgian people. The army and the popular guard had driven back all the attacks of the enemy, although this latter greatly exceeded them in number as well as in armament and munitions. On February 21 the President of the Georgian Government sent to Mr. Chicherin a cablegram demanding the reasons of the war undertaken by Russia against Georgia. Without having received an answer to this telegram, on February 22, the President addressed himself to Mr, Lenin and Mr. Trotski, asking them to terminate the war, whose imreslallstic and offensive character was beyond doubt. For only reply the soviet government released an offensive against Georgia from three new directions-by the Georgian military road on the side of Vladlkavkaz, through the neck of Mamisson near Koutain, and by the littoral of the Black Sea from the side of Sotchl. Georgia saw herself attacked from all sides by the Eleventh Russian Army and by units of three other armies-Eighth and Thirteenth, without counting some detachments of cavalry from Boudenny and Jloba. The enthusiasm of the people, the affiux of volunteers, would have permitted the Georgian Government to Increase the forces of resistance, but there were not enough guns to arm all those who were ready to die for the lberty .and independence of the country; for two years the representatives of tae Republic in Europe had been urging the powers In vain to give the Georgian people the indispensable technical means to assure the defense of the country; only one power consented finally to furnish Georgia with a certain quantity of arms, but this decision was made too late. On the contrary, the Bolsheviks, by using the inexhaustible stocks of Chimen. were in a position to case against the Georgian Army troops always fresh, prli. vided in abundance with modern arms. On February 22 the Bolsheviks received a new reinforcement; the Government of Angora delivered to the Georgian Government an ultimatum demanding the evacution of the cities of Ardahan and Artvin. Being impossible to oppose sufficient forces to the Turkish offensive on this new front, the Georgian Government saw itself constrained to recall its troops from these .itlies. declaring. however, that the question was not settled by this fact and that this settlement could not be effected except by entente or arbitration. Meanwhile, the military situation of Georgia was becomng more and more difficult: Attacked from five sides, obliged to disperse its forces ieraoss an Immense front, the Georgian Republic had to carry on the battle under conditions by far too unequal. Her army was infallibly menaced with being encompassed and annihilated. The supreme Georgian commander decided then to evacuate Tiflis and effect the drawing back of the army In order to concentrate it entirely on the strong positions where it would be sheltered
211.
from the Ittissian troops. The order was given to all the troops on all the fronts to retire fighting to the left bank of the Rion, maintaining Batum as military base. On February 2, Tflis was evacuated by the Georgian troops, and the retreat In the direction designated by the commander began. The battle continued three more weeks on the new lines of defense. In the course of these tragic days, the Georgian people showed itself more than ever united and resolved to defend its liberty and Its independence. All" the efforts of Bolshevik agents to provoke interior mutinies and to drive the soldiers Into rebellion remained fruitless. But lacking materials of war, without allies, alone, isolated, awaiting help from nowhere, the little republic could not long resist great Russia. The policy of the Government of Angora accelerated the end of this resistance. After having taken possession of Ardahan and Artvin, the Khemalist Government declared to Georgia that it no longer had any litigious questions with her and proposed to help to prevent the Bolshevik troops from penetrating in the Province of Batum. It begged the Georgian Government not to oppose itself to the entrance in the province of the Turkish troops, which were-so it aid-to take part in the defense of the region against the Bolshevist army. However, on March 10, once inside Batum, the Turks declared that the Great National Assembly of Angora had decided the annexation of the city of Batum and of its Provinces to Turkey and attempted to occupy by main force the public institutions of the city and its forts. At the same time they addressed to the Georgian Government an ultimatum demanding the disaimament of its troops. A battle took place in the streets of Batum between the Georgians and the Turks. The Turks were driven from the city. But from then on Georgia had a new front-and that on the side, precisely, where she had counted her military base as assured. The Georgian troops closed in on two sides by the armies of two great military powers, Soviet Russia and Turkey, were condemned to perish without the least hope of success. On March 17. the Georgian Government decided to discontinue the fight on the left bank of the Rlion and to dissolve the briny. The dissolution of the army, opening to the Bolshevik troops the road to Batum and making them masters of the entire territory of the Republic, had as an Inevitable consequence the departure of the Governn.nt from the territory occupied by the enemy; it was, In fact, the only means for the Georgian Government to evade all political contact wtih the invaders. The Bolshevists having organized on that part of the country occupied by tue toward this power. It declared that this usurping committee, not holding its power by the will of the Georgian people, but by Russian bayonets, a committee composed of people who entered Georgia on the heels of the army of the enemy had no right to be considered as "a government." In protesting against the violence committed toward the Georgian people, the government of the republic reiterated the assurance libat in all circumstances anywhere it would remain faithful to its duty of defending the vital interests, the liberty, and independence of its people. The facts stated above demonstrate-1. That it is not an Interior movement, even by h minority of the people, but the brutal exterior force, which destroyed the constitution, democratic republican, freely chosen by the Georgian people, to replace it with institutions imitating those of Soviet Russia. 2. That the Georgian people opposed a heroic resistance to the enemy, and that. ranking itself around its government it did not cede its territory until after having exhausted all means of resistance. 3. That the present situation of Georgia is a military occupation of the country by a foreign army. 4. Constrained by the fact of the Bolshevik occupation to leave its national soil, the Georgian Government continues to fulfill the authority which it holds from the constituent assembly and the pledge which It took toward its people, in defending the interests of this people before the powers which*have recog-*z,! the independence of the Georgian Republic.
PARTS,
the red army, a military power under the name of "revolutionary committee," the government of the republic, in ant appeal to the people, specified its atti-
Aprif, 1921,
212
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA ANNzx 8

A NOTE BY CHICHEN TO LORD CURSZON
(The Daily Herald, March 12, 1920] The note protests against the assumption that Batum and Georgian independenoe are in danger from Russia. This is untrue, the only danger threat-ened being the danger from the Entente. Russia has recognized Georgia independence; the Entente has not. The whole policy of Russia is in favor of self-determination of small nations, and no demand has been made on Georgia save that Batum shall not be occupied by hostile forces. Soviet Russia has not taken and will not take any hostile action against Gorgia, by occupation of Batum or otherwise.
ANNEX IX
From the report of the commander of the Eleventh Russan Soviet Army, Hewker, totha president of the military revoluuonary council of the Eleventh Army. The reprt
is dated December 18, 19201
As I have already stated at the meeting of the revolutionary military council of the Eleventh Army, the 3rd of December last, the operations against Gvcsrgli. are not possible except on the express condition of amicable neutrality of the troops of Klazim-Krabekir because, even in the case of a designation for these operations, in excess of the Eleventh Army, of all of the Eleventh Army and of the Second Army of Cavalry, our command will not have at its disposition sufficient forces to form a sure barrier against the Turks. Following the information of our intelligence service, the forces of KitzimKarabekir, situated on the Barikamlch-Alexandropol line, r.iach 22,000 to 24,000 men of regular troops and from 14,000 to 16,000 Kurd and Tartar horsemen. Considering the incapacity of the Armenian Army which is undergoing a period. of complete dislocation and which requiires a fundamental reorganization, we should place as barrier against the Tvurlks foreccs not less than two divilon-; of Infantry anal one brig.ade of cavalry. But, even in this case, our operation in the direction of Kazakh-Pont-Rouge and farther, on Tiflis, would be very much impeded. In the case of a serious resistance from Georgian units, our troops might find themselves in a catastrophie situation. Therefore, I do not see the possibility of furnishig such a. barrier the more so that at the beginning of the military operations, I could not venture to bring back the troops occupied at Lenkoran, at Daghestan. DJavouchir and Karabakh. In these conditions my profound conviction, which I deem it my duty to submit to you in writing, is that before the regulation of our mutual affair.. with the Turks, It would be dangerous to begin the military operations against Georgia. If the military revolutionary council of the Eleventh Army received real guaranties of the amicable attitude of the troops of Kiazim-Karabekir, the problem of the occupation of Georgia and of Tiflls, in the first place, would become more possible. For an operation altogether sure against Georgia, I estimate the concentration of the following forces necessary, in three principal directions: KazakhPont-Rouge, two divisions of Infantry, two divisions of cavalry; Poill, one division of infantry, two divisions of cavalry; Alstafa-Eliyzabethpol line, two divisions of infantry; in all six divisions of Infantry and five divisons of cavalry, to the effective total force of 25,000 bayonettes and 4,000 swords. The direction of Poil should still be taken care of by three trains as blinds which can be previously taken in a short delay on the Eleventh Army; to keep back the Georgian troops In the direction of Sotchi. it would be necessary to leave one division of infantry, and, to cover Vladicavcaz, the detachment of march of Comrade X. The considerations above are not given to demonstrate the Impossibility of an attack against Georgia, but only because I consider that this attack should be made only after a careful preparation in order to put an end as soon as possible to the people of Tiflis.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA Ifhowever, the political events make It necessary to attack, we must expect that the war against Georgia will take en a character of duration. I am profoundly persuaded that we can occupy without difficulty all the Georgian territory up to the ridge of Souram, but my troops would then bestopped. In consequence, I am taking the liberty of proposing to defer theatteck against Georgia until the realization of the following conditions: 1. Concentration In the region of Bakou-BIakh-Noukha-Elizabethpol.Kazakb of seven divisions of infantry and of the second army of cavalry. 2. The arrival of concentration on the Bakou-Elizabethpol line of all the trains of wheat constituting the revictualing provided for the months of December and January. 3. An agreement with the Turkish command. With these conditions and in the case of the stabilizing of concord, I am profoundly persuaded that the campaign against Georgia could be terminated' within about six weeks. ANNEX X [Telegram)
PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL OF THE COMMISSARIES OF THE PEOPV;
Kr olfn, Moscoiv: In 1921 your troops, In contempt of the treaty concluded between us, occupied, after five weeks of battling, Georgia, already recognized as independent by you. Since then the Georgian people are supporting perscutlons unprecedented and unheard of in Its history. Now reduced to Jespair, it Is battling against your power. Georgia battles, not for the reestablishment of such or such Interior r6giae, but for her right to her national determination and for the reestablishment of her indelendence. You know yourselves that Georgia will never submit to foreign domination. In the name of Georgian people, I propose you stop military actions and solve Rusio-Georgian conflict pacifically, basing yourselves on treaties concluded between us May 7, 1920. 1 declare at the same time that we are ready to conclude a complementary treaty guaranteeing your economic and commerchil Interests in Georgia.
'OE JOBDANIA,
Pre8idczt of the National Governmnent of Georgia. PAias, September 6. 1924.

NOTE FROM THE DELEGATE OF THE NATIONAL GOVEIRNMuNT OF GEORGIA TO THE
COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
GEN AA, March I.f. 192$. Mr. PRE.sIDENT: I have the honor to again have recourse to the high authority of the Council of the League of Nations for the affairs of Georgia. Referring to the telegram of my Government, addressed through the medium of Mr. Tchenkeli, minister of Georgia In France, to the Council of the League of Nations, I take the liberty of respectfully calling the attention of the council to the situation in my country. Georgia is passing through a tragic crisis, which is not only of weighty importance for herself but also for the whole of humanity. It runs the risk, through its injustice, of shaking the very foundations of international order. Georgia, in constituting herself an independent State, declined in the spring of 1920 the offer of Soviet Russia to form an alliance with her and preferred to become a part of the community of States of Europe. She entered into relation with these countries and was recognized de jure by them. Animated by peaceful intentions with regard to all its neighbors, the Republic endeavored to come to terms with the Government of Moscow and concluded with It, May 7, 1920, a treaty having all the characteristics of an international act. In the first paragraph of this treaty the Government of Moscow declares solemnly that "Russia recognizes without reservation the independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State and willingly renounces to all the sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with respect to the people and the territory of Georgia."
N , a an
a1
Wm
,0eoo
A"" ,"4QM 0"WV
NATIONAL REPIDBLIO OF GEOROIA

It seemed likely that Georgia could count on a sound future. Quite on'the contrary. Hardly 10 months had passed before the troops of this same Russian Government were attacking Georgia quexpectedly, without pretext, and without declaration of war. An unequal battle ensued. At the end of a few weeks Georgia was vanquished by the numerical superiority of the red troops and their better provision with munitions. And now it Is three years that the country has been under a rfglme of military occupation and of terror unique in violence and cruelty. All classes of society are persecuted; workmen, peasants, and Intellectuals are arrested, deported, or shot. In order to "prepare" the trial against the dignitaries of the Georgian Church and the patriarch of Georgia, the soviet authorities redoubled repressions as the date of opening of the trial approached. Georgia, victim of her loyalty and fidelity toward civilization, very naturally sought the sympathy of the civilized peoples and the moral support of the League of Natlonq. This latter in its third general assembly of 1922 responded by the unanimous adoption of a resolution Inviting the council to follow the events In order to seize opportunities which m!ght present themselves to help Georgia to return to a normal situation. This resolution has not up to now had much effect, for without doubt, as long as Russia should remain outside of international relations, it would have been difficult to imagine an Interven. tion by the League of Nations to make the Soviet Government respect the law of natius. But now the situation Is changed; diplomatic relations are begin. ning to be established between Soviet Russia on one hand, and the states, members of the League of Nations, on the other hand; the opportunity so long awelted now presents Itself to the council to attract the attention of Its members to the situation in Georgia and on the measures to be taken to safe. guard Its International status. I have the honor, therefore, in the name of my Government, to beg the Council of the League of Nations to kndly1. Consider If the states, members of the League of Nations, which have reestablished legal relations with Soviet Russia would not with entire pro. priety, in insisting on the execution of international engagements during the course of negotiations with the Government of Moscow, have Georgia evacuated ty the Russian troops. 2. Consider if the council could not with entire propriety send a commission of Investigation to Georgia. As to this second point, I take the liberty of calling the attention of the council to the terms of article 17 of the pact; the second paragraph of this article permits the council to open an Investigation fromn the time of sending of its invitation to the states not members of the League of Nations. In case of refusal of its invitation, the council is even authorized, by paragraph 4, to take all measures necessary for the solution of the conflict. The Georgian people places its entire confidence in the hands of the Council of the League of Nations. It does not doubt that it will take Its request under serious consideration. The Georgian cause is also that of peace and right. Pray accept, Mr. President, the assurance of my highest consideration.
S. Ku. CHAVICHVILY,
Delegate of the National Governent of Georgia.
To His Excellency Mr.
President of the Council of the League of Nations, Genera.
GUANI,
APPENDIX NO. 7
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNION OF SOCIALIST SOViVC REPUBLICS PEACE
The revolutov which brought the Soviet Government into being occurred on the 7th day of November, 1917. The Soviets (workmen's councils) a units came into existence already in the revolution of 1905, The First AllRussian Cougress of Soviets met in Petrograd in June, 1917. In the month of November, 1917, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a "Declaration of the rights of the peoples of Russia." In January, 1918, the Third All-Russian Congress of the Soviets adopted "A declaration of the rights of the exploited and laboring masses," which constituted the fundamental declarations of the principles of the new confederation of the Soviets acting as a government. This congress also proclaimed the existence of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. The Fifth All-Russian Congress of theSoviets met on the 10th day of July, 1918, and affirmed the declaration as the guiding principle and on the basis of it created and ratified the first constitution of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. This document, consisting of about 90 articles, embodied the revolutionary principles and created those organs of government which have administered Russia since then. It was passed only after the government had been in existence and functioning for more than a year. The highest governing authority passed from time to time certain amendments to the constitution aimed to better expedite the vast business ef the largest republic in the world. The first of these went into effect on the 12th day of December, 1919, mote than a year after the passage og the constitution of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic, and an additional amendatory decree followed on December 17, 1919. On the 15th of February and the 18th ol March of 1920, explanatory amendments containing laws and regulations regarding the village and rural Soviets were adopted by the all.Russlan central executive committee and became a part of the fundamental law. The Eighth All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a decree "concerning the Soviet constitution," and the ninth congress which met in December of 1921 adopted six regulatory and explnatory amendments to the constitution of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic. The Tenth All-Russian Congress met in Moscow in December of 1922. The congress, like its predecessor, consisted of delegates from several autonomous republics: The Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic, which constituted European Russia proper and Siberia, besides eight autonomous republics; the Transcaucasian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic, which consisted of three independent and two autonomous republics; the White Russian Socialist Soviet Republic, and the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. In addition to that there were delegates from the Chorasmian (Khiva) People's Soviet Republic, and the Bokhara People's Soviet Republic. On the 28th of December the congress adopted a resolution calling for a closer and a more centralized federation of these autonomous states, and this call was printed that day in the Izvestia, the official organ of the government. The call did not embody within its scope the Khiva and the Bokhara Republics because they were not socialist republics. Several months later Khiva became a socialist .republic and entered the federation, while Bokhara remains allied to the federation. On the 30th day of December the Congress adopted a resolution which later was incorporated Into the preamble of the new Constitution, and in addition to that it passed another which reads as follows: "We, members of the central executive committees of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, in session assembled, in pursuance of the powers conferred upon us and in accordance with the resolutions adopted by the first congress of the Soviets of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, held In the city of 215

Moscow, on the 30th day of December, 1922, and in accordance with the modifications and amendments of such resolutions, proposed and made by the individual central executive committees of the constiturmt republics herein represented, do hereby declare to the whole world the steadlfstness of the Soviet power, and "Resolve to enter into the covenant for the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and to adopt, as the fundamental law thereof, the covenant and constitution creating the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." The project of the new constitution was formulated the following day, and the constitution was adopted on the 31st day of December, 1922. The first session of the newly created central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics took place in Moscow on the 6th of July of 1923 when the new constitution, amended and enlarged, was ratified and the new federal system of Russia created. CHARLES RzcHT, Member of the Institute of Soviet Lawe of the University of Moscow. SECToN I
DECLARATION OF UNION
Since the formation of the Soviet Republics the world has become divided Into two groups--that of capitalism and that of socialism. Within the capitalist camp, national hatred and inequality, colonial bondage and chauvinism, national oppiesslon and massacres, imperialist brutalities and wars prevail, while here, within the camp of socialism, mutual trust and peace. national freedom and equality, peaceful coexistence and fraternal collaboration of peoples Is to be found. The efforts of the capitalist regtme, in the course of the decades, to solve the question of nationalities by the joint methods of the free development of peoples and the exploitation of man by man have proven vain. On the contrary, the web of national antagonism is becoming even more entangled until it threatens the very existence of capitalism Itself. The bourgeoisie has proven impotent of bringing about cooperation among peoples. Only within the camps of the Soviets, only under the prevalence of the proletarian dictatorship around which the majority of the population has rallied, has It become possible to destroy national oppression root and branch to create an atmosphere of mutual trust and to lay the foundations for the brotherly cooperation of peoples. Owing to that-and to that only-it was possible for the Soviet Republics to repel the external as well as the Internal attacks of world Imperialism. Solely because of these conditions were they able successfully to end the civil war, become secure in their existence, and to pass to the tasks of peaceful economic reconstruction. But the years of war have left their scars. The devastated fields and idle factories, the breakdown of productive forces and the depletion of economic resources, this legacy of the war makes the isolated efforts of individual re.publics toward economic reconstruction inadequate. The rebirth bf economic welfare was found impossible as long as the separate republics maintained a divided existence. At the same time the unsettled -tate of international affairs and the danger of new attacks point to the necessity of creating a common front of the Soviet Republics against the surrounding capitalist world. Finally, the very structure of the soviet power, which Is international In Its class character, calls the toiling masses of the Soviet Republics toward a unity of one socialist family. All these circumstances imperatively demand the unification of the Soviet Republics Into one federal state, powerful enough of warding off foreign attacks and the security of internal economic welfare, as well as the unhampered existence of the various nations. The will of the peoples of the Soviet Republics unanimously proclaimed at their recent Soviet Congresses in their decision for the formation of the "Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics," stands as the unimpeachable guarantee that this union shall be the voluntary association of these sovereign nations on a basis of equality, each republic reserving to Itself the right of free wtlhdrawal from the union, that admission to this union shall be open .to all Soviet Socialist Republics, such as are now existing and such as shall
217
arlse in the future, that the new united state is a fitting consummation of the -beginnings which had their inception in November, 1917, toward the tranquil and cooperative existence and mutual bond of the peoples, that it shall stand as the firm bulwark against world capitalism, and form a decisive step toward the union of the toilers of all countries into one world soviet socialist republic. SEcTIoN
II
00VENANT
The Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic (R. S. F. S. R.), the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic (U. S. S. R.), the White Russian Socialist Soviet Republic (D. R. S. S. R.), and the Transcaucasian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic (T. C. S. F. R. R.), consisting of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan, the Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia, and the Soviet SocialIst Republic of Armenia, by this covenant enter into a single federal state to be known as "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." Ann=or I
scoPE OF AUTHORITY OF THE UNION
1. The sovereignty of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as exercised "through the supreme governing departments, shall include: (a) The representation of the union In International affairs, the conduct of all diplomatic intercourse and the conclusion of political and other treaties with foreign states; (b) The modification of the frontiers of the union and the regulation of questions dealing with the alteration of boundaries between the constituent republics; (C) The conclusion of treaties for the admission of new republics Into the union; (d) The declaration of war and conclusion of peace; (e) The contracting of foreign and domestic loans by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the sanctioning of foreign and domestic loans by the several constituent republics; (f) The ratification of International treaties; (g) Control of foreign trade, and establishment of a system of internal trade; (h) Establishment of the basic principles and of a general plan for the svhole national economic system of the union; determination of the branches of Industry and of separate industrial undertakings which are of importance to the whole union; and the conclusion cf concession agreements, both those relating to the union as a whole as well as those relating only to the constituent republics; (i) The regulation and control of transport, posts, and telegraphs; (j) The organization and control of the armed forces of the union; (k) Adoption of a single state budget for the union, comprising the budgets of the constituent republics; determination of the general union taxes and revenues, as also of deduction'; therefrom and additions thereto for the budgets of the constituent republics; authorization of additional taxes and dues for the i. ndgets of the constituent republics; V; Establishment of a single currency and credit system. (m) Establishment of general principles governing the distribution and use ,f land. and the exploitation of mineral wealth, forests, and waterways throughout the whole territory of the union. (n) General union Jegislation on migration from one republic to another, and establishment of a colonization fund. to) Establishment of basic principles for the composition and procedure of the courts and the i.vil and criminal legislation of the union. (p) The enactment of fundamental laws dealing with the rights of labor. (q) Establishment of the general principles of national education. i) Adoption of measures for the protection of public health. (s) Establishment of a common system of weights and measures. (t) The organization of census for the entire union. it) Fundamental legislation as to the right.- of foreigners to citizenship of the union.
NATIONAL RIPUBLIO OF GEORGIA (0) The right of general amnesty within the territory of the entire union. (W) The right to veto all decrees made by the different Soviet congresses and by central executive committees of the several constituent republics which shall be In violation of the within constitution. (s) Settlement of controversies arising between the several constituent republics. 2. The ratification and amendment of the constitution shall be exclusively delegated to the Soviet congress of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. AnnTiLE II
THD sOVMwMoNTY OV THE SEVERAL CONSTITUENT RMEUSLICS AND FEDERAL
CITIZENSHIP
3. The Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics shall guarantee the sovereignty of each and every constituent republic of the union. Except as delegated iu the herein constitution, the sovereign rights of the several republics constituting this union shall not be restricted or impaired. 4. Each of the constituent republics shall have the right to freely withdraw from the federal union. 5. Each of the several constituent republics shall pass such amendments to its respective constitutions as will bring it in conformity with the federal constitution. 6. The territory of each of the constituent republics shall not be altered without Its consent and no amendment, modification, limitation, or repeal of Section IV of the federal constitution shall be made without the consent of all. the constituent republics of the union. 7. Federal citizenship of the union shall replace the citizenships of the several constituent republics. ARTICLE III
sovJEr CONGRESS OF THE UNION OF THE SOVIET SOCIALIST R"UBLICS
8. The supreme authority of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republien shall be vested in the Soviet congress and, during the intervals of sessions of the said congress in the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which shall consist of the council of the union and the council of nationalities. 9. The Soviet congress of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics shall be composed of the representatives of city and township soviets on the basis of 1 deputy for each 25,000 electors, and of representatives of provincial Soviet congresses on the basis of I deputy for each 125,000 inhabitants. 10. The representatives to the Soviet congress of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics shall be elected at the provincial Soviet congresses. In. those republics which have no provincial units the delegates shall be elected directly at the Soviet congresses of the respective republics. 11. The regular session of the Soviet congresses of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics shall be convened by the central executive committee of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics once a year, extraordinary sessions shall be convened by the central executive committee of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics either on its own initiative, or on the demand of the coancil of the union, or council of nationalities, or of any two of the constituent republics. 12. Under extraordinary circumstances preventing the convening of the Soviet congress at the appointed time, the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall have the right to postpone the convening of the Soviet congress. ARTICLE IV
THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE COIMITTFE OF TIE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS-
13. The central executive committee of the union shall consst of the council of the union and the council of nationalities. 14. The Soviet congress of the union shall elect the counciE of the union, which shall consist of 371 members from among the representatives of the several coistituent republics counted In proportion to the population of each republic.
$AIONfAL REPUBLIC, OF OF.ORGIA 15. The council of nationalities shall be formed of the representatives of the -constituent and autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics on the basis of five representatives from each; and of representatives of the autonomous territories of the Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic on the basis of one representative thereof. The composition of the council of nationalities as a whole shail be subject to confirmation by the Soviet congress of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Norz: The autonomous Republics of Adjarla and Abkhazia and the auton-omous territory of southern Ossetia shaU send one representative each to the -council of nationalities. 16. The union council and council of nationalities shall examine all decaces, codes, and regulations submitted to them by the presidium of the central executive committee and the council of people's commissars of the union, by separate people's commissars of the union, or by the central executive committee of the constituent republics, also when the question of such decrees, codes, and regulations Is raised on the initiative of the union council or the council of nationalities. 17. The union central executive committee issues codes, decrees, regulations, and orders, and forms a single legislative and executive body for the union; it further defines the work of the presidium of the central executive committee and the council of people's commissars of the union. 18. All decrees and ordinances concerning political and economic life of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and also those which Introduce fundamental changes in the existing practice of the state departments of the union must be submitted for the examination and ratification of the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 19. All decrees, regulations, and orders issued by the central executive committee shall be compulsory throughout the territory of the union. 20. The central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall have the right to veto or suspend all decrees, regulations, and ordinances of the presidium of the central executive committee of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, of the Soviet congresses, and of the central executive committees of all the constituent republics, and of all other government organs within the territory of the union. 21. The regular sessions of the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall be convened by the presidium of the central executive committee three times a year. The extraordinary sessions shall be convened upon the demand of the presidium of the council of the union, or the presidium of the council of nationalities, and also upon the demand of the central executive committee of any one of the constituent republics. 22. Legislative bills submitted for the consideration by the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall become laws only after having been passed by both the council of the union and the council of nationalities; they are published in the name of the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 23. In case of disagreement between the council of the union and the council *of nationalities, the question at issue shall be referred to a conciliation commission appointed by these two organs. 24. If no agreement be reached In the conciliation commission, the question shall be referred to a joint session the council of the union and of the council -of nationalities, wherein, in the event that no majority vote of the union council or of the council of nationalities can be obtained, the question may be referred, on the demand of either of these bodies, for decision to either the regular or extraordinary congress of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics. 25. The union council and council of nationalities each elects a presidium of seven of its members to arrange its sessions and conduct the work of the latter. 26. In the intervals between sessions of the union central executive committee supreme authority is vested In its presidium, formed by the union central executive committee of twenty-one members, amongst whom are included the whole of the union council presidium and the presidium of the council of nationalities. 27. The central executive committee elects, in accordance with the number of contracting republics, four chairmei of the union central executive committee fr(,m members of Its presidium.
220
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF
ROaOIA
2. The central executive committee of the union shall be responsible to thecongress of Soviets of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics. ARTICLE V
TiE PRESIDIUM OF THE UNION CENTRAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 29. The presidium of the central executive committee of the Unit n of Soviet Socialist Republics shall during the Intervals between the session of tht central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics be the highest legislative, executive and administrative organ in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 30. The presidium of the union central executive committee shall have the power to enforce the application of the Union constitution and the carrying out by all departmental authorities of all decisions of the uniun congress of Soviets and of the union central executive committee. 31. The presidium of the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Soclalist Republics shall have the power to suspend or to veto the decisions of the council of the people's commissars and of the individual people's commissariats of the union; and of the central executive committeesan4 the councils of people's commissars of the constituent Republics. 32. The presidium of the central executive committee of the union shalt have the power to suspend the decisions of the Soviet congresses of the constituent Republics, but it shall subsequently thereto submit sueh declsloL for examination and ratification to the central executive committee of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics. 33. The presidium of the central executive committee of the union shalt pass decrees, regulations and ordinances, shall examine aiid rutify draft decrees and resolutions submitted to it by the council of the people's commlssar6, by the separate departments of the Union Soviet Socialist Republics or by the central executive committees of the constituent Republics, their presidlai and by othor governmental departments. 34. The decrees and decisions of the central executive committee of the union, of its presidium, and of the council of people's commissars of the unio, shall be printed in all languages in popular use within the constituent Republics (Russian, Ukrainian, White Russian, Georgian, Armenian, TurkoTartar) 35. The presidium of the central executive committee of the union shali have the power to decide all questions pertaining to the interrelations between the council of the people's commissars of tie union and the people's commissariats of the union on the one hand, and the central executive committees of the constituent Republics, and their presidia, on the other hand. 30. The presidium of the central executive committee of the union shall be responsible to the central executive committee of the union. ARTICLE VI
TIE COUNCIL OF THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSARS OF THE UNION OF THE SOVIET SOCIALIS" REPUBLICS
37. The couel of the people's commissars of the union shall be the executive and administrative organ of the central executive committee of the union and It shall be constituted by it in the following order: Chairman of the council of the people's commissars of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics. Vice chairman of the council of the people's commissars of te Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics. People's commissar for foreign affairs. People', commissar for army and navy. People's commissar for foreign trade. People's commissar for transport. People', commissar for posts and telegraph-. People's commissar for workers and peasants' inspection. People's commissar for labor. People'z commissar for food. People's commissar for finance, and the chairman of the supreme council of national economy.
221
38. The council of people's commissars of the union shall issue decrees and regulatioLs, which, within the limits of the powers conferred upon it by the central executive committee of the union, and by virtue of the statute estab. fishing it. shall be compulsory throughout the territory of the union. 39. The council of the people's commissars of the union shall examine decrees and regulations submitted to it by the individual people's commissarlats of the union or by the central executive committees of the conittuent republics and by their presidia. 40. The council of the people's commissariats of the union shall be. in all of Its work, responsible to the central executive committee of the union and to Its presidium. 41. All decrees and orders made by the council of the people's commissars of the union may be suspended or vetoed only by the central executive committee of the union or its presidium. 42. The central executive committees of the constituent Republics and their presidia may appeal against the decre-s and decisions of the council of the people's commissars of the union to the presidium of the central executive committee of the union, but in the meantime such decrees and decisions shall not be suspended. ARTICLE VII THE SUPREME E COURT OF THE UNION 43. In order to firmly maintain revolutionary law throughout the territory of the union there shall be created a supreme court of the union which shall be attached to the union central executive committee. The said court shall have the power and Jurisdiction: (a) To promulgate authoritative opinions on questions concerning general federal legislation to the constituent Republics. (b) On the motion of the attorney general of the urion the supreme court shall review the regulations, decisions, and sentences of the supreme courts of the constituent Republics and appeal against them to the central executive committee of the union whenever such decisions violate the general legislation of the union, or whenever they are prejudicial to the interests of other Republics of the union. (c) To render decisions at the request of the central executive committee of the union on the constitutionally of any regulations made by the constituent republics. (d) To adjudicate all judlciable controversies between the constituent republics. (e) To try the charges against high officials of the union for offenses committed in the discharge of their duties. 44. The supreme court of the union shall function through(a) Plenary sessions. (b) Civil and criminal departments. (e) Military and military transport divisions. 45. In its plenary sessions the supreme court shall consist of 11 members, including one chairman, one vice ,-harman, the four chairmen of the plenary sessions of the supreme courts or 'ie constituent republics, and a representative of the political department of the union. (See sec. 61.) The chairman, vice chairman, as well as the other five members, shall he appointed by the Pre. sidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union. 40. The attorney general of the union and his deputy shall be appointed by the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee of the Union. The duties of the attorney general of the supreme court of the union shall include the rendering of opinions on al questions submitted to the supreme court of the Union and the arguing for the validity of such opinion rendered at the session of the court. Whenever the supreme court of the Union at its plenary sessions shall render a decision in disagreement with his opinion the Attorney General shall have the right of a:tpcaling from such decision of the court to the Presidium of the Central Lxecutive Committee of the Union. 47. The right to submit questions specified in section 43 to the plenary sesslons of the supreme co'irt of the union may be exercised only by the central executive committee of 'he union, its presidium, the attorney general of thiunion, supreme court, the attorneys general of the constituent republics, and the political apartment of the union.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 48. The supreme P.ourt of the union, at the plenary session thereof, shall have jurisdiction, sitting as a trial court, in(a) Criminal and civil cases of exceptional importance affecting the safety of two or more of the constituent republics. (b) Cases of impeachment and liability of the members of the central executive committee of the union and the council of the people's commissars of the union. No such cases, however, shall be tried by the supreme court of the union except upon a motion in each case made by the central executive committee of the union or the presidium thereof. ARTICLE VIII
THE PEOPLE'S COMMISSARIAT8 OF THE UNION. OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
49. There shall be formed, in accordance with section 37 of the within con. stitution, 10 people's commissariats, which shall conduct the branches of the State administration reserved to them herein. The regulations regarding the functions of the said people's commissariats shall be made by the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 50. The people's commissariats of the union shall be divided into (a) People's commissariats (federal) for the entire union of soviet socialist republics, and 4b) Joint (mixed) people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 51. The people's commissariats (federal) for the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall be the following: Foeign affairs, army and navy, foreign trade, transports, posts, and telegraphs. 52. The Joint (mixed) people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall be the following: Supreme council of national economy, food, labor, finances, workers' and peasants' inspection. 53. The people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (federal) shill have their representatives In the constituent Republics, who shall be directly subordinated to them. 54. The joint (mixed) people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall exercise their functions through the department of the corresponding commissariats of the several constituent Republics on the territory of the aforesaid republics. 55. Each member of the council of people's commissars shall constitute the head of his respective department within the commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 560. Within each people's commissariat a board (collegium) shall be created, which shall be presided over by the people's commissar. The said board shall be appointed by the council of people's commissars of the Union. 57. The people's commissar shall have the right independently to decide all *questions within the scope of his authority, provided, however, that he informs the board (colleglum) of his decision. In the event that the board or any member thereof disagrees with the decision of the people's comrissar a protest may be filed by him or them with the *council of people's commsesars. Such protest, however, shall in no way affect . or suspend the execution of the decision in dispute. 58. Any decree Issued by an individual cormissariat of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics may be annulled by the central executive committee of the union or by the council of people's commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. 50. The decisions of the people's commissariats of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. may be suspended by the central executive committees or the presidia of the' central executive committees of the different republics whenever such decitsins are in manifest conflict with the constitution of the union, with federal legislation, or with the legislation of the respective republics. Upon such suspension a notification thereof shall immediately be made by the central executive committee to the council of people's commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and to the union commissariat concerned. 60. The people's commissars of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics shall be responsible to the couhcll of people's commissars, to the central executive commttee. of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the presidium thereof.
NATIONAIb REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA AnncLE IX

THE STATE POLrIICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE UNION
223
61. In order to unite the efforts of the constituent republics in their struggle against the political and economic counter-revolution and against espionhge and brigandage thee shall be created a Joint state political department attached to the council of people's commissars of the union, the chairman of this departi meant entering the council of people's commissars of the union with the right of advisory vote. 62. The state political department of the union shall direct the activities of the local branches of the state political department through Its representatives in the councils of the people's commissariats of the constituent republics, acting In accordance with special rules and regulations duly ratified. 63. The control of the legality of the acts of the state political department of the union shall be exercised by the attorney general of the union In accordance with a special decree made by the central executive committee of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
ARTICLE X THE cONSTITUENT REPUBLICS
64. Within the territory of each constituent republic the supreme organ of governmental authority shall be the soviet congress of the republic, and during the Intervals between congresses, Its central executive committee. 65. The interrelations between the supreme organs of governmental authority of the several constituent republics and the supreme organs of the federal government are defined In the within constitution. 66. The central executive committees of the several constituent republics shall elect from among their number their presidia, which during the intervals between the central executive committee sessions shall constitute the supreme organs of governmental authority. 67. The central executive committees of the constituent republics shall establish their own respective executive organs which shall be the councils of people's commissars, consisting of the following: Chairman of the council of people's commissars. Vice chairman. Chairman of the supreme council of national economy. People's commissar for agriculture. People's commissar for finance. People's commissar for food. People's commissar for labor. People's commissar for Internal affairs. People's commissar for Justice. People's commissar for workers' and peasants' inspection. People's commissar for education. People's commissar for health. People's commissar for social welfare. And also. with an advisory or deciding vote, according to the .ecisions of the respective central executive committees of the several republics, the representatives of the people's commissariats ofForeign affairs. Army and navy Foreign trade. Transport and of posts and telegraphs. 68. The supreme council of national economy and the people's commissariats for food, finance, labor, workers' and peasants' inspection of each constituent republic, while subordinate to its respective central executive committee and council of people's commlssiariats of the constituent republics shall, at the same time carry out decrees of the corresponding people's commissiarlats (federal). 69. The right of amnesty, as well as the right of pardon and restoration of citizenship of citizens condemned by the Judicial or administrative organs of the constituent republics shall be the Drerogative of the central executive committees of these republics. 96153--26-----15
224
THE
ABMS,
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GEORGIA Anr.ciLz XI

TIlE FLAG,
AND TIlE CAPITAL OF THE UNION
OF SOVIET SOCIALIST
REPUBLICS 70. The insignia of the union of the soviet socialist republics shall consist of a sickle and hammer mounted upon a terrestrial globe surrounded by sheaves of grain, bearing the Inscription, in the six languages mentioned in section 34, 'Proletarians of all countries, unite I" Tle, upper, portion, of. the -insignia shall be surmounted by a five-pointed star. 71. The flag of state of the union of soviet socialist republics shall be made of red or scarlet cloth and shall bear the insignia of the union thereon. 72. The capital city of the union of soviet socialist republics shall be the city of Moscow.
APPEiNDIX NO. 8 List of the oncibrer of the diplomatic corps, in Parts, France, in the order of the d~c'ry of (ve'dCUP als, Decemnber 25, 1925
Countries and residences EXTRAORDINARY
AND GKORGIA
ITelephone
Names and qualifications
Date of deitivery of credentials
ladies
ENVOrn
PLUNNIOI1KNIFARtY
Rond-Point tie Lonxchimp,PasfiO 4, impasse des Pretres 30. rue Perronet. A Neuily. ... d... Sur-Seine. Rond.Poltitde loogcbsmnp, .. .do. 4. imp. des Pretres (160). 1
AMBASSAORS43q VNl ON or SOCIAUST 50.IIET (160).
Mr. Tehenkeli, extraordi. Feb. IN%, 1921 nary envoy and plenipotentiary mi nister. Mrt. Sossipatre Assatlany.............. first secretary. . .Mr. II. Liamnat Michel........ Dadectikeliani, second
MrIs. Tchenkeil. MrS. AsmAtiany.
rue de (Irenelle (
Do................. Do ................... D~o..................... Do.................. Do................... Do .....................
8) e g u r Ills Exoelency Mr. Chris- V(T. 10,12 IM '01. 6-64.0& Vian Rakrovsky, eulraccdiuary arnba.sador andI ....... )Ietpotntiry.Mrs. .d .IM. Nicols Tlkmenlln -do do. * ... do. ..do. . MrI. iclars ETaknsk . ............. ond. secretay. M r txnr~o askeivc ............... ond secretary. M r. Slimdque Arossmo .............. qT eond secretary. Mr. Michmel Ossoesky, at- i............
'%t. Rakovsky. Davtian. r----------%rs. M F khmesk. te.n MrNis. El.oskyf. Mrs. Pirounif.
do..MNr. Polycarpe ld ivani. '........ commercial representative. Do.................. ... do-.Mr. Mathiew Lomovsky,.............I deputy to commercial rep.? resntative. Do ................... _do,. MrI. Michel Bouoneff, t. . Do............... ..do..Mr. IVIAdlmir Hoeovsky .............. Do....................comminrcia attaclif.
Mrs. D0roussnoff.
225
APPENDIX NO. 9 GEoGIA, RUSSIA, AND THE LtAous OF NATION (By Edgard Milhaud, professor of political economy, University of Geneva. Translated and published under the auspices of the Georgia Committee of London, 11 Downshlre Mill. N. W. 3) The International Committee for Georgia, which was constituted In February, 1924, is composed as follows (S. after the name Indicates Swiss nationality) : President, Jean Martin (S.) ; vice presidents, Edgard Milhaud (France) and Albert Malche (S.); secretaries, Paul Carry (S.) and Armand Carmagnolla (Italy) ; treasurer, Charles Boveyron (S.) ; members of the bureau, Mile. Emilie Gourd (S.), Mine. HNlne Romntclano (Rumania), Mr. David MacCready (Great Britain), Mr. Everett Smith (United States), and Mr. Louis Varlez (Belgium). Members of the committee: Mine. de Perrot (France), Mine. Henry George (S.), Messrs. Paul Balmer (S.). Rbert Boisnier (France), Charles Borgeaud. Bernard Bouvier, Pierre Bovet, Louis Cartier, Emile Chalx, Edouard Chapuisat, Edouard Clapartde, Edouard Combe, and Henry Correvon (8.) ; MM. Dumoulln (France), Eugene Fabre (S.), Henri Fuss (Belgium), Nicolas Gay (France), Jules Gottret (S.), Herr llelmbold (Germany), Joseph Linhart (Czechoslovakia), Andr6 de Maday, Albert Nalne, Albert Picot, Paul Plctet. Eugene Pittard, William Rappard, and Jean-Pierre Reymond (S.); J. J. de Roode (Holland), Emile Ryser (S.), Mr. Skovoski (Poland), Mr. Templeton-Strong (U. S. A.), M. Albert Thomas, Director of B. I. T. (France), Frank Thomas, and Georges Werner (S.). Address of committee: M. Jean Martin, president, 5, rue G niCra I-Dufour, Geneva.
INTRODUCTION
The International Committee for Georgia, seeing the importance to the future of the Georgian nation of the eventual admission of Russia to the League of Nations, begged one of its vice presidents, Mr. Edgard Milhaud, 'the eminent professor of the Geneva University, to study this problem. After hearing Mr. Miihaud's eloquent statement its publication was decided upon. and at the conclusion of its deliberations the following resolution was adopted and has been communicated to the members of the Council of the League of Nations and to the governments of all the states represented in the league.
RESOLUTION
The International Committee for Georgia, remembering that the Russian Government signed, In 1920, a treaty with Georgia, by which it recognized that country's absolute independence, and remembering that the powers have also recognized de jure Georgia's Independence, having ascertained that the League of Nations, according to its statutes, must subordinate the admission of every new member to effective guaranties, furnished by the said member, of its sincere Intention to observe its international pledges, declares that it is the imperative duty of those states, members of the league ,to remind Russia. at the, moment she demands her admission, to honor her own signature, so that she can only be admitted side by said with Georgia, sovereign and Independent.
SYMPATHY FOn GEOROIA
During the presence in Geneva of Mr. Jordania, President of the Georgian Republic, we passed some unforgettable days. Two or three of us already knew him; I had the honor to be among the number. But during these four days we were constantly with 1im, and by this contact with the head of the 226
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF CEOROTA
227
Georgian Republic our former feelings of affection, admiration, and devotion for his people were increased and strengthened to a degree which I am unable to express here. I felt myself more than ever a soldier in a great cause, and I declare with you that there will be no drawing back until this cause has triumphed. We have informed President Jordania of our sentiments, an(. he wished me to tell you when leaving us that lie had the most absolute trust in all the members of our committee, and this trust has created duties for us. During those days of intimacy, when we lived side by side in complete intellectual and moral accord, we discussed plans, and we agreed that it was Impossible for such a great movement as that which had his personality for center not to have results. This led us to seek out together the practical outcome which might be evolved from the unanimous testimonies of sympathy he had met with here. I must say, addressing himself to the president of the circle of the press, I. e., to Mr. Jean Martin, that he has most admirably succeeded in this evenIng's gathering of the press circle, and that certainly, by this happy initiative in the midst of not only close friends but also of influential friends, he has rendered to the Georgian cause, as President Jordania himself truly said, a signal service.
RUSSIA AND TIE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
lint what is now to be done? This is the problem that presents itself to us. What can we (1o to hasten the moment when Georgia will regain her liberty. It seems to us, on the morrow of the Locarno agreements, which will be signed to-day, that a new situation is going to be created for Russia also. Germany's nloiroact to the western powers signifies the evident end of any possible action oj tile part of Russia in connection with Germany alone; that is to say, it nc.,.sltates Russia's turning toward western Europe. And with Germany's entrance into the League of Nations, the problem must be faced sooner or later-we do not view the future either feverishly or chimerically, so we say sooner or later--of Russia's entry in turn. Now for us that is the moment when decisive action must be taken, on the condition that we have prepared the ground; that is, prepared the minds of all concerned. Have we a solid basis for taking action? We are all agreed that a positive nd legal basis.for action in this sense exists. After the departure of President Jordania while examining the present legal position of Georgia, we came to the conclusion that there is perhaps In the world no other case better situated than that of Georgia for permitting a complete reparation of an injustice within the time, short or long, before the question of Russia's admission to the League of Nations will be practically considered. Some way has been made during the three or four weeks since the departure of President Jordania. In Le Temps of November 29, 1925, written on November 2.,an article entitled "La vinsite de M. Tchitcherine A Paris," mentions the sooner or later admission of Russia to the league as a necessity. As we are discussing with jurists, permit me to employ this expression to emphasize what is our main preoccupation here, and that we tre striving to bring together solid and indisputable arguments, not the arguments of a thesis but those of a cause of which the strength is its justice. I ask your permission, therefore, to quote the documents upon which we base our conclusions. It seems to me of interest to give you an account of the terms in which Le Temps expresses Itself upon the problem. Here are two or three extracts from this article: "A conversation between Briand and Chlcherln was foreseen the moment the commiss.ar of the people for foreign affairs stopped at Warsaw first and at Berlin afterwards. It was a logical conclusion that, from that instant, Soviet Ru.sia is bound, as a sequence to the Locarno agreements, to modify the orientation of her foreign policy to one more adapted to present circumstances* Moscow marked this desire by an approach to Paris and by trying to obtain a settlement of questions; long left in suspense, a settlement without which the resumption of relations between the two countries could not produce all the effects which one has a right to expect from it." After various considerations, which I omit, stating an objection and with. drawing it, Le Temps goes on to say: "There is no English plot against tie soviets in the Locarno agreements, which constitute the point of departure of a great policy of European solidarity.
228
"Russia is not systematically excluded from this policy, and in tle interest of the consolidation of European order, all the capitals will be forced to smooth the way of her return to normal relations. The siLplest way for her to reenter the circle of powers would be to follow the example of Germany and ask for admission to the League of Nations, which is open to her, as it li to any other state, on the condition, be it understood, that she bows to the common rule and subscribes without reservation to all the stipulation3 of the covenant. The recent declarations made by Mr. Lltvinoff tend to prove that the Government of Moscow has not yet resolved to get itself )represented in the assembly at Oeneva. The idea is not yet ripe, but it will ripen perhaps when the soviets have weighed the advantages comprised for themselves in the unde..,tanding they are trying to bring about with the neighboring states, notably with Poland and Rumania. It is with Moscow chiefly that rests all that has to be done to bring about a sane policy of peace." * So wrote Le Temps; and in an agency's r&sum( of the substance of the ministerial declaration, published by the newspaper., we read these words: "In the domain of foreign policy, the Government will pursue the policy of international pacification in accordance with the agreements of Locarno." But how is this policy of European pacification set forth In the agreements of Locarno to be continued, If not by looking beyond Germany: that is to say, toward Russia? And how is Russia to be appeased if not within the framework of the great organism for peace, the League of Nations itself? All of this is, no doubt, enveloped in the formulae, necessarily abstract and general. of diplomacy; but the objective visibly pursued. using the article in Le Temps to elucidate the ministerial declaration, and as being, certainly within the line of M. Aristide Briand's policy, is, by bringing together the western powers and Russia, the creation of a state of equilibrium and peace within the whole of Europe. Let us remember M.. Brand's saying on his departure from Locarno: "The United States of Europe are beginning!"
ENGLAND AND RUSSIA
Again, this morning, we read in the newspapers; under the heading "After Locarno, the conference of London," the following information: "London, November 29.-A rumor runs through London, but not confirmed, that a meeting wol'ld take place between MM. Chamberlain and Chicherin, a meeting which could only be fixed after the conference of Geneva. This meeting would be welcomed by the Russian side. Perhaps it may be supposed that on the English side it will not be unwelcome and a talk with the Russian foreign minister will not be refused. But if it really exists, it is not likely that we shall have confirmation of it, at least for the present, nor see its realization before some weeks." Now, no one is ignorant of the fact that in matters of European policy the present. views of the British Foreign Minister coincide with those: of the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, and that It is just this coincidence of views concerning the appeasement of Europe which was the condition for success at Locarno. Without wishing, therefore, to link up in too logical arguments some indications still vague, we have every reason for thinking that a day will come when the problem of Russia's admission to the League of Nations will be considered. This is the sole basis of our statement and of the special effort which we now wish to make, in the conditions newly created by circumstances, of what our President has styled the policy we should follow, using the word "policy" in a very wide sense; and, it should be understood, separating it from anything resembling party policy, be that party what it may. Upon this basis #be eventual entry of Russia Into the League of Nations, a program of action can be built. We possess, in fact, certain juridical, positive elements which, being brought In contact with one another, will give us great strength in the action to be undertaken.
TI E LEGAL POSITION OF GEORGIA-TIJE RUSSO-GEORGIAN TREATY OF MAY 7, 1920
Here are the legal elements. The first of all, I should add, is one that with. out which all our efforts would have no more than a humane and moral character and would lose all claim to be a positive legal demand, it is a declaration by Russia herself in a treaty between Russia and the Republic of Georgia.
229
The two States signed, on May 7, 1920, a treaty, by virtue of which the Juridical independence de Jure of Georgia was proclaimed. Article I of this treaty is thus conceived: "1 Basing herself upon the right of all peoples, as proclaimed by the Federated Socialist Republic of Soviet Russia, to dispose of themselves freely, even to comprising the complete separation from the State of which they had formed part, Russia recognizes w" hout reserve the independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State and renounces voluntarily---" voluntarily," there is no question there of a treaty Imposed by force on the day after a crushing victoryrenoinces voluntarily all sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with respect to the Georgian people and territory." About these rights one might dispute. At the time when Georgia was free these did not exist; but there had been a century of domination. From the International point of view, Georgia would be a member of a Russian Empire or of a federated union of a sovietic Russia, or some other,-If the bonds which existed between Georgia and Russia had not been broken undoubtedly at the outset by the rising of the Georgian people and the proclamation of their independence on May 26, 1918, but afterwards--two years after the declaration of independence-by t,* treaty signed May 7, 1920, by the recognition very clear, In the name of a principle solemnly and voluntarily invoked, of the Independence fie Jure of Georgia by the Government of the soclalist-sovietic republic. This document forms to-day the basis, not only of all action which we shall hope to see taken in different directions: it has already formed the starting point of quite a considerable amount of action still developing up to the present day.
BFOOONITION DE JURE OF GEORGIA BY THE GREAT POWERS
The powers-not only the allied powers, but also a number of others--have in tUrn recognized Georgia not alone in fact but in law, de Jure, following this proclamation of the Russian Government. It appeared to me extremely interesting to parallel the two recognitions by the Allies--the one on January 11, 1920, Is the recognition de facto: England, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium recognized de facto Armenia, AzerbeidJan, and Georgia-four months later, on May 7, by the treaty, of which I have Just quoted article 1, Russia recognized the independence of Georgia de jure. It was after this recognition by Russia that the allied powers changed their position and went on from the recognition in fact to the recognition in law, marking clearly by this transition, the fundamental importance in their eyes of the judicial proclamation of Georgia's independence by Russia herself. Here is the text of this later recognition such as we find it In a letter addressed by the then president of the supreme council, M. Brand, to M. Gueguetchkorl, Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Republic of Georgia: PARIs, January 27, 1931. SIR (MoNsIEUR'LE MINISTRE). After becoming aware of the decision by which the supreme council, on January 26, has resolved to recognize de Jure the independence of Georgia, that country having formally expressed a desire for this, you having expressed in a letter to me dated January 27 the official deinand of the government and the Georgian people to be recognized de Jure by the allied powers. I communicated your letter at once to the conference, which decided unanimously to recognize de Jure the Georgian Government. The allied powers are happy to be able to testify thus once more the sympathy with which they have followed the efforts of the Georgian people toward Independence and the admiration with which the work it has already accomplished inspires them. Please accept, Monsieur le Minlstre, the assurances of my profound respect. BXAND. Here was a new recognition following that of the Russian Government, and that of the allied governments--a recognition de Jure.
THE RUSSIAN OCUPATION AND THE RISING OF 1924
Since then certain events have happened which have caused the allied governments to mark their position, but above all one event of an awful kind. Fifteen days after this solemn recognition by the allied powers, without provocation,
NATIONALL
REPUBLIW
6F OEOB01A
weeks of desperate fighting on the part of a nation of 3,000,000, who found themselves attacked by the armies of a people of more tian a hundred millions. Georgia was crushed and subjected to the tyranny of a military occupation, with the connivance later on of some traitorous elements in the country, of which the Invaders made use. I think it can not be disputed that from this time Georgia was exactly in the position of Belgium during the Great War until she was liberated by International action, inf which she herself took part, but which was beyond her powers alone. It is a question of a country occupied by an enemy. This fact stands out clearly in the light of a certain proposal. made through intermediaries to the Russian Government that a conditional guaranteed conference, not a conference under the eyes of the police and voting by uplifted hands, as is the method now in occupied Georgia, but under free conditions--that is to say, under the control of two international socialists, one from Moscow, the other from London-it being understood that only the workers and peasants should vote, as to whether the rule of the soviets should be accepted. The Georgian National Government added, to mark how far they were assured of the fidelity of its people tW the national ideal of the country, that if one-third of the votes were in favor of the Russian r egme they would accept it. This proposal was rejected. The Georgian people have never changed their attitude. The rising so cruelly crushed last year is a proof of this. That rising against the foreign occupation is the effective confirmation of the national character of the Georgian movement and not to be confounded with the rising of a party or a class or even of a nation against Its own government.
THE CO'NFENCE OF GENOA AND THE T"ATY
the armies of the Sovietic Russian Republic Invaded Georgia, and after six
or
LAVSANNE
By the side of these manifestations of the will of the Georgian people there is something that has for us Juridically a supreme importance, and that is the position taken since consistently by the powers. Lt me recall the few following facts: At the conference of Genoa, when Soviet Russia presumed to intervene there as the representative of Georgia, the inviting powers opposed this and admitted the Russian representative only as the representative of Russia properly so called. A year later there was the conference of Lausanne. Here we have a very precise text in article 12 of the convention of the st "91 which reserves very clearly Georgia's rights. This country Is not expressly mentioned, but it Is Indisputable that it was Included by the very terms which were adopted, as is shown by the following: "The commission will be composed, under the presidency of a representative of Turkey, of representatives of France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Bulgaria, Greece, Rumania, Russia, and the Serbo-Croat-Slovene State. "Adhesion to the present convention will comprise for the United States the right of having equally a representative on the commission. "The same right will be reserved in the same conditions to the Independent states bordering the Black Sea not mentioned in the first paragraph of the present article." Go round the Black Sea-eliminate Turkey, Bulgaria, Russia, Rumania, and the Ukraine, and there will only remain Georgia. Consequently if there is a plural attaching to the other "independent states bordering the Black Sea" it can only be justified by the Ukraine and Georgia. It is expedient, further, to remind ourselves that the protocol of the conference of Lausanne mentions especially the Ukraine and Georgia as Independent states. This fact has been underlined elsewhere In very unequivocal terms and to the authors themselves of the convention by the delegate of the National Government of Georgia our friend, Chavichvilf, who the same day that the treaty was signed, addressed officially to the members of the conference the following letter: "Although not represented within the conference of Lausanne the Georgian people can not remain indifferent to the solemn moment when this conference, to-day, is consecrating the treaty of peace by the signature of its members. "It was not, indeed, without a feeling of gratitude that the Georgian people learned last January the news, which informed them that the conference of peace had dismissed the unqualiflable pretonslon of Soviet Russia to close the
NATIONAL REPUDLIC OF GEORGIA
231
straits and transform the Black Sea into a Russian lake, a project which was intended to strangle definitely the Georgian people. "It wds with equal satisfaction that our people noted the fact that the conference of Lausanne having wished to inscribe the name of Georgia in the pro tocol even as a bordering state, has refused to the delegates of the sovietie government the right of representing the Georgian people, subjected as they are to oppression and pillage by the Russian army of occupation. "In expressing my sincere thanks to the conferen.a and trusting to International justice, I express also in the name of my government the profound conviction that the great powers who in the spirit of equity have taken care to reserve to Independent Georgia the right of adhesion to the convention of the straits and to have a representative on the commission Instituted by the said convention, will continue to oppose the efforts of Soviet Russia to destroy the right of Georgia as recognized by the whole world." It is clear that Georgia was Indeed-incontestably--one of those bordering states which would be called upon to take part freely one of these days in the doings of the convention.
RECOGNITION OF THE SOVIETS AND RESF.OATIONS IN FAVOR OF OEORAO
Now we come to a series of later great manifestations, whereby the rights of Georgia have teen, with all the forms of courtesy imposed by diplomacy maintained and safeguarded, with more or less clearness by the powers. Here is the text of Great Britain's recognition of Russia. Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, as prime minister of Great Britain, in the note transmitted to the Government of Moscow, said, among other things, that the Government of His Brittanic Majesty-these are the very words of this document-"reognized the Union of the Socialist Soviet Republics as the do Jure rulers of those territories of the old Russian Empire which acknowl. edge their authority." (Februirry 1, 1924.) It is quite evident that in February, 1924, Georgia did not recognize the authority of Soviet Russia, since shortly after the rising, to which I have already alluded, took place. As to France, it was at the end of 1024 that she recognized Soviet Russia. To be precise, it may be useful to recall that M. Herriot, who had to sign the act of re-ognition, had three years before put to the then head of government. a question respecting the attitude of France as regarded the recognition of Georgia. Addressing M. Poincar4 he said: "The precise question I am putting is as follows: The sovereignty of Georgia has been formally recognized by the Russian Government itself, by virtue of a very precise treaty, I ask the president of the council if he is willing to declare that his government remains attached to the cause of this independence. His saying It In the name of France, who has taken action for the independence of Poland and of the (Oechs, will permit us to send forth a ray of hope to an unfortunate people under oppression." To this M. Polncard replied: "The honorable M. Herriot has only given expression to the thought of the Government itself, such as has been already several times expressed to the State of Georgia. This Government possesses besides a representative here in Paris. and this representative has access to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs." It is essential to remember that up to now in Its relations with the Government of Georgia the French Government comports itself exactly as it does with the representative of no matter which of the powers whose political situation is most completely assured. To-day the representative of Georgia enters the Elysee or the Qual d'Orsay upon an equal footing with the legally recognized representative of the Soviet Republic. So it was natural that M. Herriot in recognizing the Russian Government made a reservation in the following terms: "The Government of the Republic * * * -recognizes do Jure, dating from to-day, the Government of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, as the Government of the o16 Russian Empire where its authority is accepted by the inhabitants. * 0 1" We read furthermore in the document these words: "In notifying you of this recognition, which has no bearing upon any of the previous engagements and treaties signed by France * * *." It Is evident that these words "Pre. vious engagements" applies to the recognition of Georgia by France. 96153-26---16
232
As to Belgium, she has not yet recognized Russia of the soviets for a reason I shall indicate. Her policy is to make the recognitoin no a point of departure for negotiations with that country but the point of arrival. Negotiations first, recognition afterwards. Here are the words pronounced upon this question by M. Vandervelde, Belgian Foreign Minister, In the Chamber of Representatives, July 17, 192.5. "I want to reply Immediately to what M. Brunfaut has just said, when he thought he saw a contradiction between my former attitude and the language which as Minister for Foreign Affairs I used in a preceding debate. I declared long ago for the recognition of the Soviet Republics, because I consider It Impossible for Belgium to remain outside the Governments that have already recognized this Republic. I added, and I maintain, that this Government thinks the recognition ought not to be-the preface but the conclusion of an agreement both economic and political. I have further Indicated that this. conclusion Is only possible under certain conditions sine qua non." What are these conditions? One-of the economic order--concerns the restitution of properties belonging to Belgians n Russia: the other, mentioned In the first place, ras thus formulated: "First of all the reservation ofthe rights of the governments, such as Armenia and Georgia. who have been recognized de jure by Belgium. This is what France did when she recognized the Republic of Soviets." We see that we are In the presence of a cloud of witnesses and legal international documents of exceptional value establishing the Intangible rights of Georgia.
THE RESOLUTIONS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS FOR GEORGIA
But there Is more: The League of Nations itself Is Interested In the Georgian question. It has voted resolutions in favor of Georgia, certainly with that prudence which animates it whenever faced by certain very delicate problems of international policy, but without this prudence preventing it from marking In 1922 and again in 1924 that there was a problem there which must be solved. Here Is the text of 1922. "The assembly of the League of Nations having considered the situation of Georgia, Invites the council to follow attentively the course of events in that part of the world, so that It can seize on occasions which may present themselves, to help by pacific means and In conformity with the rules of interna. tonal law, to restore this country to a normal condition." No one will uphold that the breaking of treaties is a mode of action in confrmity with the rules of International law. And, again in 1924, at the time of the national rising in Georgia, the same text was taken up in the League of Nations; it was revitalized and brought up to date in a new document which I shall not read, but will give the conclusion of the report of the commission which has a special interest for us. Here It Is: "The commission asks the assembly if It will kindly order the transmission of the present report to the council, so that it may ie able to take into consideration, at the moment and in the way It believes to lie most opportune, the information contained therein."
FIRST ARTICLE OF TIE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
This demand of the commission was unanimously agreed to by the assembly September 25. 1924. And now, the League of Nations having testified thus on two occasions to its Interest in the Georgian cause and In the solution of this disquieting problem. what will be Its attitude when Russia asks to be admitted? Here is the last text I will quote; it Is the second paragraph of Article I of the League of Nations: It is the one that fixes the condltlons on which new members are admitted to the league: "Any state, dominion, or colony which is freely governed and not designated In the appendix may become a member of the league If its admission Is pronounced by two-thirds of the assembly, provided that it shall give effective guaranties of its sincere intention to observe its international engagements. and that it shall accept the regulations established by the league concerning its force and Its military, naval, and aerlan armaments." "Provided it gives effective guaranties of its sincere Intention "-the wording shows the strictness of this clause-to observe its international engage-
233
ments. * * *" Can a people who signed voluntarily a treaty with another and then violated that treaty be considered, so long as it has not made honorable amends, as giving effective guaranties of Its sincere Intention to observe its international engagements? We have here an article which fur. niiihe. a powerful weapon for stopping Russia at her moment of entry by say. ing: Yes; on condition that you furnish guaranties; that is, that you observe your own treaty and that you enter side by side with Georgia recognized by you and by us. This is how, in my opinion and in the opinion of my colleagues of the bureau, the question of Georgia appears at this moment. We must convince pmblie opinion that the Georgian problem is not only a sentimental or moral problem, but also a problem of actual law in the International class, and when we have proved this it will be impossible to admit Russia without Georgia, Just as it was impossible to recognize Russia without safeguarding the rights of Georgia. It is merely a matter of the second and last act.
TIE MORAL AND LEGAL STRENGTH OF GEORGIA'S CAUSE
I conclude by affirming iny belief, as I have already had the pleasure of atfirming it before President Jordanla himself. 1 believe that this cause is so strong that the European and world-wide combination which has become the League of Nations is, as such, incapable of being unmindful of rights so elementary and so evident as those of Georgia; I believe that the Europe of 1925. so different from the Europe of 1914, with its resuscitated Poland, its Czechoslovakia, its Serbo-Slovene-Croatia, its Finland, its Latvia, its Esthonia, its Lithuania, this constellation of powers, either iiew or restored, countries which are the incarnation of the peoples' right to sel(-determination, this Europe, so composed, is incapable of enduring a persistent violation of her own principles. I believe that the continuation of Georgia's servitude is an impossibility. And looking ahead, not as a dreamer lout as a realist who has kept his faith in the ideal, I can see the day when we shall greet our friends Jordania, Tchiedze, Tsereteli, Tehenkell as they arrive at Cornavin from Paris or Tiflis. on their way to the palace of nations as the representatives of Georgia, free at last. And with them that fighter in the cause who is with us this evening, M. Chavichvili, we shall with Joy see him, too, taking his plnce in the great assembly of the nations in the name of Georgia Jibereted.
APPENDIX NO. 10 iTranslatlion

Gx0RoLAt LEGATION,
Paris,December 5, 1925. MaL AMBASSADOR: Referring to my note addressed to your excellency on April 4 of this year concerning the concession of manganese mines in Tchlatourl, I have the honor to send you herewith, and beg you to transmit it to your government, a memorandum on the same subject. By this document you can verify that my fear, expr.4sed in the note menti6ned above, has been realized: The Government of Moscow has ceded to the American firm, Harriman & Co., the exploitation of all the manganese mines of Tchlatourl, as well as the exclusive monopoly for the exportation of the mineral. But I could not then Imagine to what point this arrangement would be disastrous to the Georgian people. The memorandum indicates this sufficiently. In renewing most energetic protestations against this Iniquitous agreement entered into between the Government of Moscow and the firm of Harriman & Co. I desire to declare once again that It will be considered by the Georgian people and its legal government as null and void. I permit myself at the same time to hope that the Government of the great Republic of the United States will not refuse its kind consideration of the fate of the subjugated Georgian people, which does not cease to claim its rights and does not shrink before any sacrifice for its political and economic sovereignty. Kindly accept, Mr. Ambassador, the assurances of my highest regard.
A. TCHEUNKELf,
ExtraordinaryEnvoy and PlenipotentiaryMinister of Georgia in France. His Excellency Mr. MYRoN T. Hmscc, Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Amlbassador Of the United States of America.
MEMORANDUM ON TIE TCHIATOURI MANGANESE CONC-SSION
On the 12th of June last the people's commissaries, Messrs. Tchicherin and Dzerjlnsky, In the name of the Moscow Government, signed an agreement with the American firm, Harriman & Co., granting to the latter a concession over a period of 20 years for the exploitation of the manganese mines of Tchlatouri, with all Installations, works, technical material, etc., as well as a monopoly of the exportation of ore. This event was reported by nearly the whole European and American press; since not until then a single concession of such richness and Importance from every point of view has been granted on the whole territory of the said Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. Owing to the richness of the ore and its quality, as well as its situation and e2sy exploitation, the manganese deposit of Tchlatourl enjoys a world-wide reputation. The quantity of ore over a single area of 130 square kilometers exceeds 100,000,000 tons. The analysis of this ore gives:
Ver cent
48.49-51.50 -----------------------------------Metallic manganese 5.95-11.41 Moisture ----------------------------------------------------8.92-10.95 Silicum ------------------------------------------------------The superiority of Tehiatouri manganese is due to pyrolusite (MaO'), containing 85 to 95 per cent pure peroxide. It is the only one of such high grade. 2.4
235
Because of its quality, the demand for Tchlatonri manganese has surpassed that of all other countries. The world's exportation of manganese during the fast decade before the war (1904-1913), amounting to a total of 14,550,000 tons, was distributed as follows: Tons Per cent
41 Georgia ................................................................... 5,915,000 00 35 ... 5, ,O India ................................................................. 14 2,100,000 Bfazll ................................................................ . I0 Other countries ........................................................ ,48,000 On account of the demand for Tcilatourl manganese, Georgia, through her ports Batum and Poll, enjoyed before the war commercial relations with the industrial countries of Europe and America.' Thus, In the economic life of Georgia the manganese industry plays a most important rOle. It i true that foreign firms worked In Tchlatourl (German, English, Belglan, and Greek '), but more than 60 per cent of the business of Tchiatourl was in the hands of local firms. Thus the manganese industry has for Georgia a natlona; character. The employment of a large number of workmen, the activity of the railway and ports of exportation yielded to the exchequer considerable revenue,, and commercial and financial movements resulted therefrom, all of which prompted Georgia to guard Jealously this important branch of her national industry. However, the Russia tzarlst government (until 1018 Georgia was incorporated in the Russian Empire) placed numerous obstacles in the way of the manganese Industry as well as other branches of the economic life of Georgia; an onerous tariff, a painful bureaucratic tutelage, unsolved labor questions, all this has hampered considerably private initiative and th-e development of the manganese industry. From the time of the declaration of Georgian independence the national government pail particular attention to the improvement of the manganese industry. In order to intensify the production, tens of small enterprises have been grouped into one limited company; in order to struggle against the evils of speculation and harmful intermediaries, all the enterprises, local as well as foreign, were united into one exportation company "Temo," to which the exclusive rights of exportation of ore were granted; in order to safeguard the legitimate interests of the workmen, modern social laws have been introduced. After nearly five years of stoppage in consequence of the Great War, the industry of Tchintourl resumed its activity, and during the first 10 months which followed the opening of the Dardanelles about 200.000 tons of manganese was exported. At the beginning of 1.921 Georgia was occupied by the Russila Bolshevist troops, and the soviet rngife was installed there. Uxtraction ef manganese ceased in Tchiatourl. The exportation of the existing stock continued, however, thanks to "Temo," the closing of which was not *o the interest of the invaders because of the high revenue which the sale of tve ore yielded to the State. But soon, in its efforts to obtain credits in civilized countries, the Government of Moscow inaugurated the so-called new economic policy (NEP) and began to make offers of various concessions to foreigners. Owing to the absence of persons disposed to put money into the ruined industries of Soviet Russia, Moscow put on the market concessions of the great industries of the Caucasus (oil, manganese), which had not suffered either from civil war or from the soviet regime. It is thus that the concession of the manganese of Tehliatourl has been given to the firm of Harriman & Co.. and the Government of Moscow treated with the latter by signing clauses admissible only for deposits not yet exploited or in the remote colonies.
I Georgia lying at that time within the Russian Empire. ihe ore of Tchlatouri was known on foreign markets unde the name of "Russian manganese." 2There was not a single Russian firm in Teblatouri.
236
NATiONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOHOIA
The agreement itself has not been published; but soviet newspapers given a sufficient analysis of it, so that one may judge how ruinous the have conditions are: The concessionary uudertakes to make certain technical Improvements on the local railway line and on the port of Poti for a sum of $4,000,000, and to pay three-fourths dollar to the exchequer for each ton of exported manganese. (1) The exclusive right of exploitation during a period of mines (of a yearly producton of more than 1,000,000 tons) with20 years of all all works and plants, ways of access, and other installation (of a value of about $40,000,000) ; the revenue permits the concessionary to recover in a year the capital which he has to spend (luring the whole duration of the concession ($4,000,000). (2) The concessionary has during 20 years the monopoly of the exportation of manganese ore. (3) The concessionary is exonerated from all state taxes which, under normal valuation, would bring to the and local duties and exchequer during the term of the concession from already existing firms $16,000,000. (4) The concessionary enjoys special tariffs for transport on the railway lines; and by making an approximate valuation, even according to pre-war tariff, the reduction granted to him causes the exchequer to lose during the time of the concession more than $25,000,000. From this short sketch It is clear that the Government of Moscow have only sold to foreigners goods which do not belong to them and allow the not ceeds of that deal to enter their exchequer, but they have also treated prothis business in conditions clearly disadvantageous even to themselves. By this act the Government of Moscow wishes to effect a double aim; on the one hand by reestablishing economic relations with the United States of America, they hope to obtain their recognition by the Government of the latter; and on the other, lu their criminal designs, they wish to give a blow to the national industry of Georgia, which is one of the bases of the independence of the people itself. Is this not in reality crime committed in broad daylight against the subjugated Georgian nation to have expropriated, in the name socialism, Georgian Industrials in order to sell afterwards their goods of to foreigners? But for the Government of Moscow there are no rules of law or moral. They reject the mask by which they tried hypocritically to pretend to the world that Georgia enjoyed, within the boundaries of the so-called U. S. the full rights of an independent state and that she was free to dispose S. R., of her political destiny as well as of her economic wealth. The Russian people's commissaries, Messrs. Chicherin and Dzerjinski, with one stroke of the pen, have ceded to foreigners the principal branch of her national industry. Representatives of the Georgian people have on many occasions declared publicly that neither the Georgian people nor their legal Government will accept the agreements concluded in the name of Georgia by the Government of Moscow or its agents. There are persons v ho, receiving unheard-of profits from soviet power, remain deaf to these declarations. Covsclously or unL-nsCiousIy they contribute to the consolidation of Moscow's yoke upon Georgia. While protesting against such acts, the Georgian people continues its struggle against the power of occupation and for the reestAblishment of its liberty and national independence.
In exchange he receives:
m mm ... L_
APPENDIX NO. 11 GEORoIA-A SOCTAL-DEMOCHATIC PEASANT REPUBLIC-IMPRESSIONS AND OBSERVATIONS BY KARL KAUTSKY (Translated by II. J. Stenning) PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION The present book is the result of a visit which I made to Georgia in Augi,-t, 1920. Invited by the Social-Democratic Party of Georgia, I Journeyed thence at the same time as the delegation of the second international, which had been asked to visit the country by the Georgian Government. Falling iII in Rome, I was only able to reach the country 14 days after the delegation arrived, in fact, Just as the time when the latter was returning. I remained a much longer time in the country, from the end of September until the beginning of January. In view of the state of my health and the unfavorable weather, I was prevented from visiting every part of the country, like the delegation. To this must be added my ignorance of the Georgian language. Nevertheless, I was able to enter into direct contact with the people and to acquaint myself with their ideas. Likewise, the native literature relating to the country, both official and private, was Inaccessible to'me because of the language difficulties, so far as I was not aided by translators. Thus I can not pose as one who has investigated the country. Nevertheless, I have learned far more of It than an ordinary tourist: everybody most readily gave me information upon all things that I asked about; both the heads of the Government and officials as well as the representatives of the opposition, proletarians as well as business people and Intellectuals. The communists kept far away from me. What they had to say could be seen each day in the daily papers which they published in Tiflis, although in Russia no Social-Democratic paper is allowed to appear. Naturally, this (lid not prevent the communists from complaining about the lack of freedom in Georgia at every opportunity. The freedom of the press in democratic countries renders it easy for abuses to be brought to light, provided equal freedom is accorded to all sections. . Access to all Institutions and undertakings was readily granted to me. As I made it a principle not to announce my visit beforehand, I could be certain that I should not be shown Potemkinlan villages. Thus, In spite of all difficulties, I have collected a large amount of information, and believe I have obtained a correct picture of the characteristics of the country, at least in broad outline. It is not my intention to wrl$e a book Of travel-my personal experiences were too slight for ths purpose--nor do I propose to give a detailed account of the country and the people. I must leave this to observers who are able to remain a longer period in the country anid to see more of it than I did, and who are familiar with the language of the country. What oocupied my attention in Georgia, and what I shall deal with in this book, is not a geographical nor an elthnological, but a social problem, the question whether a real Socialist government is possible in a country which is economically more backward than its Russian neighbor; how such a government was able to maintain itself there, without dictatorship or terrorism, using the means and methods of democracy, and what it was able, under these circumstances, to achieve. Thus I went to Georgia to study an intcrest:ng and Important social experiment, and to draw from It conclusions which would be generally valid for Socialist practice. What I studied was the antithesis to Bolshevism. However insigniflcant it appears, it deserves our attention not less than the Bol-
shevist experiment, with Its many sensational reverberations.
Unfortunately. it has become impossible to follow the practical development of the two experiments side by side to its culminating point. The process 237
238
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOBOIA
of consolidation of the Georgian community was brutally interrupted by the Russian neighbor and competitor. When, in January of this year, I set out upon my return journey to Europe, I heard that the representative of Soviet Russia spoke to the Georgian Government In tones of warmest sympathy. To-day the representatives of Georgia are In possession of proofs that already In December, 1920, the Russian Gov. ermnent were making their military preparation for the Invasion of Georgia, which followed In Februpry. Then the country again became a Province of Russia, In the form of an Independent Soviet Republic. Toe small country was hedged In by a Russian red army, which numbered 120,000 men, and plundered to the utmost extent. As a subjugated territory, Georgia suffered more severely from the domination of Bolshevism than unhappy Russia itself. The course of Its complete ruination, up to the point of absolute starvation, which was completed within Russian Empire In four years, only occupied a few months. I described, In the German edition of this book, conditions which I had Just seen, but which have been completely superseded by other conditions at the time this English edition appears. Nevertheless, the subject still retains vital interest. For we are still confronted with Russian Bolshevism, the antithesis of the Social-Democratic Republic of Georgia, a knowledge of which Is so helpful In enabling us to judge rightly the methods of Soviet Russia. The dictatorship of the Moscow tyrants can not become permanent In Georgia, any more than In Russia itself. The Georgian people have survived many barbarous Invasions; they will also survive the devastation of the red army and the horrors of the extraordinary commissions. In Russia, and consequently In Georgia, too, democracy must eventually triumph again. Then the problems and experiences which I came up against In Georgia, and which are set forth in the present bbok, will find added significance beyond the confines of Georgia, for the whole of Russia oed Its border States. The immediate future will, no doubt, be terrible for the country both, north and south of the Caucasus. And even when every dictatorship, white as well as red, is replaced by democracy, the economic organisms of those districts will, for a long time, bleed from a thousand wounds, and exist in a state of painful convalescence. Out tasks In western Europe at the present time consist in strengthening and unify ng the Socialist parties and their international organization. The more we sutceeded In this, the sooner shall we be In a position not only to raise our own working class and our own nations, but also to lend powerful aid to a ,peedy recovery in the East. Only for astronomers, but not for Socialists, Is the saying valid that light comes from the East. When we Socialists of the West are called upon to bring redeeming light to the world, this does not signify a compliment to us, but & task which Imposes on us the most devoted activity for our great Ideal of the emancipation of the oppressed. K. KAUTSKY. BER.LN-C[TARLtorENBURGO, September 8, 1921. GEORGIA CHAPTER I-NATURAL CONDMONS What we learn to know when vitising a country are in forms and colors and the character of Its landscape. At a first glance Georgia is bewitching, and this Impression deepens as the endless variety of Its pictures disclose themselves to our view. From a seacoast, with subtropical vegetation, the Caucasus rises to a height of more than 15,000 feet. The German explorer, Merzbacher, relates in his book, The Caucasian Highlands, that from the summit of Elbrus (18,000 feet), he enJoyed a view which made such a powerful impression that compared with It the peaks of the Central Alps only left a feeble remembrance. He also declares that the Via Mala, the Tamina, the Liechenstein Gorge, and other renowned places were left far behind by the wild, rocky scenery of the Tchegen, or of the Alasan and Korsuf Rivers. Neither the Bernese Oberland nor Engadine, neither Julikarien nor Cortina came near to equalling ihe
239
Swanetnian landscape in the grandeur of its proportions, in the harmony of its parts, In the wealth of its vegetation, or In the splendor of its colors. I have quoted the testimony of the classic explorer of the mountains and iwoples of the Caucasus, as I was prevented from enjoying its beauties on the ,;pot. Merzbacher was as well acquainted with the Alps as with the Caucasus, and others, who know both mountain ranges, consider the beauty and dimensions of the Caucasus to be superior to those of the Alpe. If the reader will imagine the Bay of Naples to be a part of Switzerland, he will get an idea of the variety and perfection of nature to be found In Georgia. Georgia not only combines subtropical coasts and glaciers, but also contains a great fullness of vegetation, produced by the tropical heat and great humidity, and close to this are arid desert regions. There is also a surprising number of medicinal springs of various kinds, which burst out of the volcanic soil. Georgia has much to offer to invalids as well as to nature lovers and artists. Before the war, tourists and invalids, both from Russia and from western Europe, had begun to visit the wonderful country whose attractions were heightened by the fact that, unlike Switzerland and Italy, they were in many respects as yet untried. In the Caucasus there are virgin forests and remote valleys which no stranger has hitherto trodden. An evidence of the primitive character of the country is furnished by the circumstance that large beasts of prey are constantly met with there, us well as other kinds of wild animals. Bears' flesh comes into the market at Tiflis for sale, like beef with us, and at no higher price On one occasion when, out of curiosity, I bought some bear's flesh, I asked where the bear had been shot, and was informed 50 miles from Tiflls--quite near the capital, and not in some remote Caucasian valley. But Georgia is not only a veritable paradise for tourists, sportsmen, and invalids. Nature also felt obliged to please the economists. Natural beauty and richness of soil, which are so seldom found together, are combined in Georgia to an extraordinary degree. The soil Is extremely fruitful and capable of bearing rich harvests of southern and northern products, according to the position of the land. Oranges, figs, olives, and tea flourish on the coast of the Black Sea, and cotton Is cultivated toward Azerbaijan. Maize, wheat, or barley are sown almost everywhere. Georga is particularly rich in excellent wine, and seems to be the home of the grape, which grows wild In the woods. Tobacco also thrives very well, and, in quality, seems to be better than that of Trebizond. Nowhere have I seen such abundance of fruit as in Georgia, and in this respect it can only be compared with California. The Georgian mountains, especially the Caucasus, are infinitely rich In valuable woods. In minerals, too, Georgia conceals great treasures, of which the most important is the manganese of Tchiaturi, which ranks as the richest in the world. The three most considerable deposits of manganese are to be found in Brazil, India, and Georgia. In 1913 these countries exported manganese, gs follows: Tons Brazil ---------.------------------------------------------------122,000 India ----------------------------------------------------------772,306 Georgia -------------------------------------------------------1,061, 731 Rich seams of coal are found i Georgia in at least two places, and in addition, iron, copper, lead, zinc, etc.
CHAPTER 1l---UtITORICAL
Thus Georgia lacks nothing to make her not only one of the most beautiful, but also one of the richest countries in the world. But the material position of the Georgians does not depend merely upon the richness of the land in which they live; it is also determined by the manner in which they have made use of it, and the relations they are obliged to enter into with their neighbors. In other words, it depends not only upon the natural, but also upon the social and economic conditions in which they exist. And during recent decades these conditions have been anything but brilliant hi Georgia. For about a thousand years Georgia wag Indeed favored by its geographical position, in that it came Into contact with Greece through the Black Sea.
240
SThe soil of many Griek states was too stony and sterile to support their growing populations. As seafaring progressed the Greeks learned to fetch the corn which they nee.4ed from southern Russia. Thus they came Into contact with the coasts of the Black Sea. They were also attracted to Georgia by the gold which was then found there. As early as the eighth century B. C. colonies were planted by Greek towns along the Black Sea. The Georgians became acquainted with Greek civilization at a time when the Germans, or their predecessors, living in primeval woods, stood on no higher plane of civilization than the savage Indians of North America when they were discovered by Europeans. Even more than by gold, tile Greeks must have been attracted to Georgia because it provided so good a route, from the West to the East, to the then rich territories of Persia and central Asia. Eastern and western civilization met In Georgia, and stimulated its intellectual development. But highways to rich countries attract not only the merchant, but also the warrior, whether he be plunderer or conqueror. In the degree in which the connection between West and East, Greece and central Asia, developed in Georgia, the clashes of western and eastern armies became more frequent, and Georgia suffered devastation from being made a theater of war. But it always recovered speedily, so long as it remained a highway of world commerce. In 1783. Catherine the Mecoud concluded with the Georgian King, Heraklius II, an agreement under which the latter accepted the protection of the empress. This protection did not save Georgia from being again plundered by the Persians, but it prepared the way for the complete subjugation of the country by the Russians, who annexed Georgia as a province to their empire in 1801. The internal feuds and the hostile. invasions now gradually ceased. Still more important was the fact that Georgia was once more able to enter into relations with Europe. But the representatives of European civilization were practically confined to Russian officials, generals, and aristocrats, who brought from Europe what they themselves had assimilated, the external gloss which did not always sufficiently hide Asiatic barbarism. The feudal oppression and exploitation was not lightened, but even made heavier by the military and beaurocratic regime. Meanwhile the Russian autocratcy did not remain completely lutchallenged. The economic development created in the Russian Empire revolutionary sections, which eventually becamp strong enough to give battle to absolutism, although, at first, only by means of underground warfare. In many of the border States, which formerly had known a separate political life, the struggle against Russian absolutism became especially intensive owing to the fact that it signified not merely the breaking of the fetters of absolutism and feudn, m but also the casting off of the foreign tyranny. This was the case in Poland and also in Georgia. In these countries all classes felt the pressure of the foreign bureaucracy in the most severe form. In Poland the peasants were played off against the large landowners and sometimes favored, but nothing like this happened in Georgia. Those who were not masters of the Russian language were everywhere degraded and excluded from all offices. Even in the factories of Georgia a worker who had not undergone an examination in Russian was liable to be refused employment. The growth of Georgian resistance to the foreign yoke was assisted for a time by the practice of the Russian Government in banishing to Georgia, as w~ll as to Siberia, its subversive subjects, such as Poles. This practice did not last long. as Georgia commenced to mutiny In the middle of the last century. It was then the turn of the Georgians themselves to be banished, and they shared this fate in the fullest measure. The struggle against Czardoni had to be carried on with the aid of the ideas of the more highly developed west. Not only the officials, the military, and the aristocrats but also the revolutionaries of Russia drew their knowledge and methods of thinking from western Europe. This occurred at a time when the revolutionary movement of Russia received such an accession ot strength that the Liberals had become Conservative. and only the Socialists represented revolutionary thought. Thus the Russian revolutionaries became Socialists in spite of the weakness of the proletariat and its class struggle in the Russian Empire. And just as the capitalists of Russia chose the more perfected forms of European technique for the industry which they founded so the Socialists of Russia chose the most perfected form of socialism, the Marxian.
NATIONAL, REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
241
This also applied to Georgia. There only for a short time the opposition movement was led by the aristocracy, as in Poland, and possessed a purely nationalist character. At the time when serfdom was abolished in Russia an echo was heard in Georgia In the form of peasant unrest, which was suppressed with bloodshed. The opposition movement first became strong and systematic when Industrial capital was attracted to Georgia by the building of the railway from Tiflis to Baku (commenced in 1880) ; by the increasing significance of petroleum production in Baku and its growing exports of that article. Although capitalism was still in an undeveloped stage, socialism of the Marxian.kind took root in Georgia at this time. In the 10 years between 1800 and 1900 the. socialist movement rapidly gained in strength. Its first champions were the practical organizers and agitators, Sylvester Jibladse and N. Tcheldze, with whom was soon associated the publicist and theoretician, Noe Jordania, who did even more for Georgia than Plechanoff did for Russia, as he remained in the country instead of working from a place of exile and as he united the talents of the practical fighter with the activities of the thinker and publicist. The first strike in Tifils took place in the year 1890, and the 1st of May was celebrated in that town from 1899 onwards. In the following year, on May 1, 1900, a workers' festival was arranged, at which about 500 workers were present. The most hopeful outlook prevailed. and for the first time revolutionary songs were heard in the Georgian language In the midst of banners with the portraits of Marx, TLassalle, and Engels. In thie same year the socialist organizations of Georgia joined up wth the Social-Democratic Party of Russia, which was formed at that time. The Georgian Socialists did not desire that local particularism should cut them off from the mass of the struggling proletariat of Russia. From the very first they attached importance to the Ideal of international solidarity as opposed to Georgian nationalism. Without depreciating the demand of the Georgian nation for self-determination, they believed this would be most effectually promoted within the sphere of the Russian Soclal.Democracy, which stooi for universal self-determination. Unlike the Polish socialists, they entered the International as Russian Social Democrats. The Intzi ,.-Aional did not include any separate Georgian Social-Democratic Party. By adopting this course, however, the socialists of Georgia became involved in all the errors and confusions through which Russian socialism has passed. In contrast to Georgia, where the proletarian movement has nearly always remained true to Marxian social democracy, the Socialist movement of Russia has been split into various sections. On the one hand was the social democracy, with tendencies in line with the thought of western Europe, and postulating an advanced stage of capitalism as the indispensable preliminary to Socialism; and, on the other hand was the Social Revolutionary Party, with a specific Russian Socialism, which it -ought to base rather upon the peasants and the vestiges of village communism than upon the proletariat. These doctrines could scarcely find any support in Georgia, as in that country village communism had completely disappeared. An antagonism soon arose within the rf.nks of the Russian social democracy, between divergent conceptions of Marxism. The first conception, which may be called that of western Europe, emphasized the importance of the economic movement, and the other, or Russian, conception perceived in force not merely the midwife but the creator of a new society. The first conception involved, in particular, the development of the self-consciousness and the independent activity of the proletariat, and consequently favored democracy, which alone formed the groundwork for this development; and the other conception saw in the proletariat merely a tool to be wielded by a small and resolute organiza. tion of Socialists. Those holding the firsts conception remained true to the Marxian method, which they consistently employed in spite of all the difficulties which arose from the economic and political backwardness of the country; those holding the other conception began by substituting the dictatorship of a conspiracy society for democracy within the party organization; and from this point they tended to move farther away from the Marxian method towards the pre-Marxlan ideas of Blanqui and Weitling. The more the members of this section deviated from Marxian methods, the more ob. stinately they clung to Marxian phrases the better to exploit the repute in which the name of Marx was held in Russia, and they expended ,l' their
P"
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OZORGIA energies upon learning by heart such phrases as suited them, wh.eh they Interpreted In their own way. In place of Marxian science hey set up Marxian scholastics. In the early days of this split, which occurred In 1903, the Georgian Social Democrats ranged themselves on the side that was dominated by the Marxian and western European outlook; that is, on the side of the Mensheviks.' They soon became the strongest element in this section, to which they remained absolutely loyal. In Russia, on the other hand, there were constant 11=tstions -in -the relative strength of the Menshevists and the Bolshevists. Yet the gMeral tendency of the Russian proletarlan movement showed.- itself to be very favorable to Bolshevism. Certainly the Bolshevbsts were the worst Marxians, but their preponderance was to be explained on Marxist lines by the special conditions in which the class struggle was carried on in Russia. In Georgia, and also in Poland, which stood in national opposition to Russia, the special Russian form of Marxism found no foothold. The Georgian SocialDemocrats were the picked troops of Russian Menshevism. Consequently, from the commencement Georgia appeared to Bolshevism as the enemy deservIng the most bitter hatred, and to-day It has become the hereditary enemy. After the first Russian revolution Georgia was the country which constantly returned the largest Menshevist majority In the Duma elections since 1908, and which furnished many of the Menshevist martyrs. Scarcely one of the leading comrades In Tiflis whom I have recently met has not made acqua!ntance with Siberia. Georgia also provided the Russian Party with a series of its best leaders and representatives. Jordana, Ramishvily, Tseretell, Japarldze, Tcheidse, Lomtatldze, Gfgftchkor, Macharadze, and Tchenkell played In Petrograd a political r6le not less important than In Tiflis. The Social-Demoeratic fraction of the last Russian Duma before the October revolution chose the .sameoTcheldse to be its leader. It voted against war credits and adhered to the Zimmerwald conference. It was Tcheidse who reid the Zimmerwaldian manifesto In the Duma. And when the 1917 revolution created the workers' councils, Tcheidse was chosen president of the Petrograd Workers' Council-a proof of the confidence reposed in him by the Russian proletariat through his parliamentary activity. By the side of Tcheidse in the Petrograd Workers' Council was the Georgian Tseretell, who had hastened there ftom his Siberian place of exile. The Menshevists were not able to assert themselves in Russia. They were too weak to carry out their peace policy in opposition to the war policy of the cadets, in coalition with whom they had formed a ministry, of which Tseretelt was a member; and they could not decide to support the Bolshevist agitation. which aimed at the dissolution of the army before the conclusion of peace, and the complete sacrifice of Russia to German, Austrian, and Turkish invasion, plundering and conquest. The middle course, which the Menshevists would have pursue, was well conceived. But as is so often the case in history when great and Irreconcilable oppositions come into conflict, those who worked for the final result, which was given by the parallelogram oC forces, were paralyzed by the clash of the antagonisms, and only after the strength of the two extremes had been exhausted was this object of the middle party to be finally attained. Thus the -Menshevists were soon eclipsed in Russia but not In Georgia. In that country there were no cadets and no Bolshevists of importance. The majority of the Socialists of Georgia, supported by Jordanla, had been unfriendly to the coalition policy and demp-nded a purely Socialist ministry. The revolution brought the Social-Democracy of (Gergia, as a compact and resolute party, to a dominant position, which was not seriously contested from any quarter in the country. But it was a bad heritage Into which this party entered. The Immediate situation was desperate, In view of the masses of Russian soldiers, filled with Bolshevist hatred against Menshevist Georgia, which in their retreat from the yet more hostile and ferocious Turks, broke up into plundering bands and swarmed Into Georgia. Apart from this, the ec,)notnc position of the country was grievous in the extreme, and its enduring pow'r was slight. Even before the war it had suffered considerably from the neglect of its agriculture and its industry and the inadequacy of Its means of communication. And to this was now added the devastation of four years of war and protracted Isolation from the Industr. and civilization of Europe.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA CHAPTER IIl-AGORICULTURE
243
Even to-day the land of Georgia Is cultivated in the most primitive fashion. There, as elsewhere, feudal dependence and the prevalence of short leases Impeded the development of agriculture. The Implements of Georgian agriculture reminded German observers, only a short time ago, of Biblical times. In 1905, Paul Hoffmann wrote, In his book on German Colonies in Trans caucasla, as follows: "Only In recent times have modern plows been widely used in Transcau casia, and the colonists are still partly assisted by the wooden plows of th o Georgians." If this Is the case with the Germuan colonists, who represent a higher typo of agriculture, It applies still more to the Georgian peasants themselves. The plow does not penetrate the soil very deep, and requires an uncommonly strong team, 5 to 10 pairs of buffaloes. Merzbacher saw plows drawn by 24 animals, which needed seven men to guide them. What an eipend(ture of energy to cure a scanty result. Thrashing is managed with a thrashing sledge, provided with a flint, which appeared to Merzbacher to be a relic of the stone age. The methods oZ soil cultivation are as primitive as the implements used. Rotation of crops and artificial manuring are quite unknown. The tillage resembles the system which existed in Germany at the time of Charles the Great. The same crop, whether wheat or barley, is planted year in and year out in the same field, sometimes three years in succession, until the harvest decreases. Grass Is then allowed to grow, and the soil Is used as pasture, again for several years in succession, when it Is sown once more with crops. The cattle which is put on the pastur-s is small and insignificant, at least the horned cattle. The absence of the cultivation of fodder Is not only prejudicial to the raising of cattle and to agriculture, but also to afforestation. The sheep and goats ruin the woods, and destroy every aftergrowth of trees, especially In the eastern and dry regions. We have spoken atove of the boundless riches of Georgia in wood, but these are very unevenly distributed. Wood is to be found in the districts of the Black Sea, and In the hardly-accessible and sparsely populated districts of the Caucasus. The drier .and more populous districts are in many cases completely woodless. Thus, for example, not a single tree is to be found on the whole range of mountains which surrounds Tiflis. Nor is there any trace of soil tillage in these desert places, which scarcely yields sustenance for goats. The growing destruction of the woods increases the dryness of the climate, and, therefore, the danger of harvest failures. In former times this danger was averted by great Irrigation works. As In so many other countries of the East, Igypt. Mesopotamia, vnd Central Asia, there were great territories In Georgia which, with the aid of artificial irrigation, gave the richest harvests, without which they would have remained sterile. The laying out of irrigation canals was an important task of the old Oriental Governments. Since that time these territories have passed under the sway of rulers who sprang from the nomad peoples of the steppes, and who had no understanding of the importance of such works. They exhausted all the energies of their lands In warlike undertakings. In the course of recent centuries the irrigation works in these countries have everywhere fallen Into decay, and consequently prosperity and civilization have shrunk. In the thirteenth century the population of Transcaucasia was estimated io be 16,000,000. To-day it amounts to hardly one-third of this number. But even this third does not find sufflcledt support in its own country. Georgia required constant imports of corn, which It coulf! easily receive from neighboring South Russia. These Imports were paid for with tobacco and wine, which are produced In abundance In Gelrgia. The Russian Government encouraged this commerce, which was to the Interest of the great wheat growers, who found in Georgia a market close at.1iand for their surplus corn, and received cheap wine and tobacco In exchange. If not for the cultivation of wheat, the Russian Government has done much to promote the culture of the vine In Georgia, and, in addition, has aided the production of tea. The vine. tea, olives, and almonds are in many parts carefully cultivated. The remarks upon the backwardness of agriculture do not apply to these crops. Nevertheless, owing to the primitive character of its agriculture, an agrarian country like Georgia was not a little, dependent upon a foreign.market for its sustenance.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA War and revolution would, therefore, menace the country in the extreme. Bolshevism has cut off Georgia from the corn granaries of South Russia, and deprived the country of the markets for its surplus products. At the same time the aftermath of the war has rendered it extremely difficult for Georgia to find new markets in western Europe, and fresh corn providers in America and Australia., This explains the food difficulties which we find in a country so richly dowered by nature, and in which over 80 per cent of the population live by agriculture. In addition to the backwardness of the mode of production, another circumstance contributed to diminish the yield of agriculture by decreasing the amount of labor power which was engaged in it. -This factor is malaria, which in the most fruitful districts is a scourge ti the country and paralyses the strength and energy of numerous inhabitants during the best years of their lives. If the dryness necessitates great Irrigation works, in order to increase the fertility of the country, malaria, on the other hand, is best grappled with by draining the swamps which occupy wide stretches of land, especially about the Black Sea. The overcoming of ninlarlik would not merely raise the labor power of the inhabitants, but would als,, rescue new land for cultivation. Both irrigation and draining works were equally neglected by the Russian Government. CHAPriM IV-INDUSTRY
We are able to make our sketch of industry shorter than our sketch of agriculture. Not because this sphere Is less important, but because no great iddstry of any consequence exists in Georgia. Very few capitalist undertakings are to be found there, and handicraft on the smallest scale and homework-carpet and cloth weaving-both in the textile and in the metal indusThere are numerous handicraftsmen. who are tries-are predominant. extremely clever and tasteful, and nearly all of whom work only for themselves. The country produces an abundance of wool and silk cocoons. It also produces some cotton, which grows it large quantities in the neighboring AserbalJan and especially in Turkestan. But there exhts no large undertaking to work up this raw material. The Jealousy of Industrial Great Russia did ilot allow competition of this nature to arise. In the capital of Tiflis women can be seen at any moment walking and carrying in their hands the hand spindle with which they spin wool. So far as they are concerned, not merely the spinning machine, but even the spinning wheel has not yet been discovered. The largest industry in the country is the railway works. The railway front the Black Sea to Baku is the artery of the country. In addition, account must be taken of the arsenal and some electrical power stations. The re.t of the large undertakings are almost all subsidiary to agriculture, such as. cognac distilleries, oil mills, tanneries, and sawing mills. There are also tobacco factories, tile works, and soap works. Outside of the special industries there are some large mining undertakings. It is a remarkable fact that only the least significant of the coal deposits are worked, namely, those in Tkvibuli. which are connected with the railway. The far better coal of Tkvartschell has not yet been won. Its deposits art' quite near the Black Sea, in fact, only 45 miles distant. It is necessary. however, to construct a railway to this spot, and to make the harbor of Ochemtchlry accessible to large ships. This has not yet been done, and thus a source of great riches for Georgia has remained untapped. This neglect is explained by the nearness of Baku with its immense petroleum wealth. In a double connection Baku is of economic importance for Georgia. A system of pipe lines connects the petroleum wells of Baku with Batoum. where a petroleum refinery has been established and numerous ships are collected to pick up the petroleum. Batoum has experienced from this cause a prosperity which is almost American. On the other lintil. the railways and industries of Georgia have discovered In masuth. a by-product of petroleum, a fuel which for cheapness, effectiveness. and convenience, Is not to be equaled. Coal did not come Into vogue. Since the revolution this has been altered. The military operations Involved in the struggle of the Bolshevists with the entente had not only, as we have ieen already, prevented the import of corn and the export of wine; but they have also led to Baku being.captured by the Bolshevists, who practically stopped the export of petroleum to etorgia. Without petroleum and masuth, thrown
245
back on bad coal, without light and good fuel. the condition of the population of Georgia became desperate. Railway facilities had to be restricted, and traveling was slow and difficult, owing to the new fuel. These events also did harm to trade, which was always active so long as petroleum was available. Now the industrial products of which Georgia had need were lacking. The disturbances to trade brought about by the war, which persisted so long afterwards, were not overcome by the attractive force which petroleum could have exerted. The commodity most in demand for export was still manganese, which was not dependent on the Russian market. Of the million tons of ore which Georgia exported in 1913. merely I per cent went to Russia; on the other hand, 38 per cent went to Germany. 22 per cent to England. and 17 per cent to Belgium. From" the outbreak of war up to the present time the export of this commodity has suffered considerably from transport difficulties. These difficulties, which were not created by the democratic regime. formed, together with the backwardness of agriculture, the chief cause for the blight which rested after the revolution upon the Georgian paradise. CH A P V. TnE CLAssEs
We have seen that Georgia participated In the March revolution of 1917 as a part of the Russian Empire. Then came the Bolshevist dictatorship, which at once began to exercise a repulsive influence on the Russian border states. This movement spread to Georgia, which declared Its independence on May 26, 1918. Its government was socialistic. But this does not mean that a socialist mode of production could be Introduced into the country. The economic foundation for this transition existed in Georgia less than in Russia, where large-scale production had notably developed, in spite of the agrarian nature of the country. The socialistic character of the regime after the revolution in Georgia consisted in the fact that the country was ruled by its industrial proletariat. If one likes, the phrase dictatorship of the proletariat can be used in this connection. Even more than in Russia, was it the dictatorship of a minority. But quite different from Russia, it has been carried out on the basis of democracy, and without the exercise of any terrorism, as all classes have assented to it. There was grumbling from all classes, even from those who ruled. This is not to be surprised at In view of the already indicated lack, on the one hand, of bread, and on the other, of industrial products, clothes, and tools; and as we shall see, of houses. But no party has arisen which professes to be able to cope with this condition of scarcity more effectively than the party till February last in power. Thus the discontent had nowlwre assumed the shape of an attempt to overturn the democratic government. What did appear in this guise emanated not from the country Itself but was fed by foreign money, and. in spite of the most lavish subsidies to the commlnist press and to communist branches, gained no influence. What is the explanation of the extraordinary phenomenon of a dilctatorship of the lroletarIat on a democracy baI. In an agrarian country without any industry worthy of the name? The basis of all politics is the struggle of clases. Not every class, however, Is able to maintain an independent policy. The three great leading classes in modern society, each of which follows its special class policy, are the receivers of ground rents, profits on capital, and the wages of labor. They form the three great fundanipplal parties, which we find in every modern country; that of the large landowners. or conservatives: that of the capitalists, or liberals; and that of tht proletariat, or Socialists. Between these three clasep tiieie are Intermediate sections which are not capable of following any cli.4s policy; partly because the conditions of work isolate their members too much from each other and from the seat of politics, which is especially the case with the peasants: partly because their intermediate position touches various class interests at the same time, as is the case with the small handicraftsmen and likewise with the peasants. They live from the labor of their hands, like the wageworkers, and yet receive an income from their property, like the capitalist or the landowner. They are neither mere workers nor mere capitalists or landowners, and at times they feel with the one class and at times with the other classes.
246
NATIONAL REPUBLIC 6F GEORGIA
As the third of these Intermediate sections, we have to mention the Intellectuals, composed of such diverse elements that at the most they can only feel professional interests, such as those of doctors, lawyers, professors, engineers, but never a common class interest. Apart from their professional interests, they always become the champlons of the Interests of another class, which appear to them to be synonymous with general social progress. Some attach themselves to the landowners, others to the capitalists, and aguin others to the proletariat. And it Is the same with the peasants and lower middle-class. The attempt to create special parties of the peasants or the small middle-class have always ended by such parties becoming subservient to alien class interests. Now, in Georgia we find the peculiar phenomenon that of the three great leading classes only one exists. After the agrarian reform of 1918 there were no large landowners in the country. There Is also no capitalist class 6f any Importance. The nucleus of an energetic and independent capitalist class has always been bound up with industrial capital. This condition has almost completely been wanting in Georgia. Money and trading capital Is found to be represented there more strongly, but this is mostly In the hands of foreigners, and can not therefore enter directly into the struggle of pnrties. Thus the proletariat remains as the only class which Is capable of conducting an independent and leading policy. But this capability Is not possessed by the entire proletariat of Georgia. We find in Georgia two sharply separated kinds of the proletariat, an oriental and a modern. In the Georgian proletariat we perceive distinctly that here we stand on the boundaries of two very different worlds. The oriental proletariat deserves in reality the name of a vagabond proletariat. It lives from hand to mouth In the greatest poverty, but by no means only from begging and stealing. The number of beggars Is great. Yet among the oriental type of the proletariat there are many who live from the labor by their bands. Being possessed of no Implements of production,, and often without any technical training, they earn their scanty bread mostly as carriers. Corn, wood, vegetables, and other products of the country are transported to the towns in oxen-spanned wagons and on the backs of asses. Within the town the means of transport are mostly the backs of men. In Tifls a furniture van is unknown. When a family changes its dwelling 60 to 80 musehas (carriers) are hired, who carry the furniture from house to house, piece by piece. Even pianos are removed In this manner. . This class of proletarians Is not organized, and is politically Indifferent. They are proletarians of the same kind as we find In antiquity, for example, In Rome. They are without the capacity to engage In independent politics. In sharp contrast to them is the proletariat composed of the wageworkers of the large undertakings. The important difference between the two kinds of the proletariat, of which we have hitherto only read in books, can be seen In Tiflis. The wageworkers In the large undertakings are quite steeped In modern Ideas; above all, the railway workers, who are the proletarian 0i1te in economically backward countries, where capitalism has commenced to penetrate. The railway -is responsible for carrying the modeA of thought and the struggles of the modern proletariat to the farthest corners of the earth. I also remarked scarcely any difference from their prototypes In the west among the other members of this class of the proletariat whom I learned to know, such as printers, metal workers, employees In the electricity works, tobacco factories, and commercial clerks. They were well disciplined and had learned to think socialistically, but also on economic lines, so that socialism does not appear to them as a mere question of power but also one of economic conditions. They are organized In trade-unions as well as In the Social Democratic Party. During the first revolution numerous unions were formed in Georgia, as in Russia, but in the reactionary period they were mercilessly suppressed, more so than in. Russia Itself, as Georgia always returned Social Democratic deputies to the Duma. Only after the March revolution of 1917 was it possible for trade-unions to be formed again in Georgia. The printers were the first to make use of this opportunity. They were followed by the commercial employees. Forty-one trade-unions, with 29.000 members, were represented at the first trade-union congress in Tiflis at the end of December; 1917. At the next congress, In April,- 1919, there were 85 tradeunions, and at the end of 1920 there were 113, with 64,000 members. The great majority of the wage workers of Georgia, numbering about 100,000, of whom 73.000 are employed in large undertakings, are consequently organized in trAde-
247
uns. The trade-unions are neutral, but 95 per cent of their members belong to the Social Democratic Party. This party itself has a higher membership (80,000) than the trade-unions, an unusual circumstance, as, In addition to the trade-unionists, peasants and intellectuals are represented. The party controlled four daily papers, five weekly papers, and two monthlyy reviews; the trade-unions controlled two general trade-union organs, and the railwaymen had also two special papers. Most of them appeared in both the Georgian and the Russian languages. The trade-unions are organized on an industrial basis and not on vocational lines. Yet this principle is not rigidly applied. In Tiflis they own their own premises and a theater and meeting place, the Plechanoff House, which the workers have lately built for themselves at great sacrifice. The rallwaymen own a special building for their union. The tendencies and Institutions of the trade-unions are quite those of western Europe, but they seemed to me to suffer somewhat from divisions. But a movement which is only three years old woui not be perfect. It is perhaps due to the youth of the organization that the spirit which prevails in it is in no way narrow and professional, but is concerned with the interests of the whole, not merely of the workers, but of society. This is exhibited, for example, in the attitude of the trade-unions toward the strike. They regard the strike as the sharpest weapon In the proletarian class struggle. How highly they esteem it is shown by the fact that they demand the establishment of the right to strike In the constitution. But they are quite clear on the point that this formidable weapon is only to be used In case of direst need. The present condition of general economic exhaustion appears to them as singularly unsuitable for a strike, which is not urgently called for. It would disturb production, diminish the number of products, and thus increase the suffering of the proletariat. To Increase production is the most urgent need. Under these circumstances, the trade-unions consider piecework and the system of bonuses to be permissible. On their proposal a board of wages was formed as part of the ministry of labor, to which workers and masters each nominate 10 members. The president of this board is the minister of labor, last winter, M. Eradse. This board of wages has to follow the movement of the cost of living and of the wages of labor; to Investigate the grievances of workers; to discuss collective agreements and carry them through to a conclusion, and finally to act as mediator in disputes between workers and masters. This office has hitherto succeeded In averting the outbreak of any open conflict. Since it began to function in May, 1019, the trade-unions of Georgia have not found It necessary to declare a single strike, although they were hindered from doing so by no prohibition, as In the case of bolshevist Russia. In this respect Georgia is unique. The avoidance of strikes was made easier, apart from the exertions of the board of wages, and such labor protection as the 8-hour day, by the government's care for the sustenance of the worker. Vital necessaries such as bread and salt, at low prices, were provided for every worker, and every member of a family receives a certain quantity. The difference between the price paid by the government and the price at which the goods are sold was made up by the employer with whom the worker was engaged. This peculiar system of a sliding scale of wages which varies with the changes In the prices of the necessaries of life has been found to work quite well. The wage workers are the only organized and resolute class in Georgia. They know exactly what they want. They know not only their special interests, but also the common interests of the community, which they allow to guide them. This enables them to exercise an Influence on the best sections of the numerous intellectuals, such as teachers, doctors, engineers, artists--Tiflls is a very artistic town--lawyers, etc. The revolutionary section of the intellectuals was Inclined to socialism during the struggle against czarism. Among the 102 members of the Social-Democratic Party In the constituent assembly are 32 workers, the rest being Intellectuals; 20 teachers, 14 journalists, 13 lawyers, 7 doctors, 3 engineers, and 13 officials. Nearly all of them are elected by peasants, who form over 80 per cent of the population. The Social-Democratic deputies are nearly 80 per cent (102 out of 180) of the whole house.
248
In the February, 1919, elections to the constituent assembly the Social. Dentocrats received 82 per cent of all votes cast In the country on a total poll of V1 per cent. In the towns they received 72 per cent on a total poll of only 52 per cent. The heavy peasant vote for the Social-Democrats Is partly explained by the system of small holdings which prevails in Georgia. Most of the peasants can not live from agriculture alone; many of them must seek to supplement their scanty income by casual labor. It was not difficult to accustom this class to proletarian modes of thought. Add to this the fact that the social democracy carried on a powerful agitation for the expropriation of the large estates. Thus the Industrial wage earners have shown themselves the best champions of the small peasants. The Socialists would not have gained their dominating influence over the minds of the revolutionary peasantry If they had been divided. They were only able to prevail by means of democracy, and without terrorism, because they were united and formed an overwhelming Menshevist majority. In this respect Georgia was fundamentally different from Russla. Even the Russian socialists could have dominated the minds of the peasants and governed by means of democracy If they had been united, or If the Bolshevists could have resolved to form a coalition government with the Menshevists and the entire party of the social revolutionaries. It was not to hold down the !'apitalists that they needed to abrogate all the democratic rights of the masses of the people, but to hold down the other socialists. In order to hide the real state of affairs, the Bolshevists have promptly labeled the Menshevists and social revolutionaries of the right as lackeys of the bourgeoisie and counterrevolutionists. Thus the Bolshevist regime has been based on a lie from the commencement, and that has become decisive in determining the direction of its further policy. Quite different conditions and quite another policy In Georgia have permtted the small minority of the Industrial wage workers on the basis of democracy, and without exercising any terrorism, to capture the political power of the country and successfully to maintain their Government without any serious Internal opposition until February of this year. CHAPTER VI-TiE SOCIAL Rsvo.u-r'o.x 'The most Important taak of the new government consisted of clearing away the remains of feudalism. The abolition of serfdom and the creation of a free peasantry happened in Georgia between 1864 and 1871, somewhat later than in Russia. As lit Russia. this reform was carried out in such a way that the peasant lost land. He only received, in the capacity of proprietor, a small portion of the land to which he was attached as serf. The largest and best part remained with the feudal lords, from whom the peasant was obliged to lease the land, if he, wanted to live. In this way the system of small holdings arbse, similar to what exists lit Ireland and south Italy, which makes any rational agriculture Impossible and yields a scanty living to the countryman. It was left for the revolution to take the land from the feudal nobles to provide the por peasant with land, and to change the leaseholder into a freeholder. This was no socialistic but a middle-class revolution, but the conditions rendered It necessary and It took place. We Marxians are distinguished from utopian socialists by the fact that we recognize that socialism Is only possible under specific circumstances. What it Is Incumbent on us to do Is always suggested by the circumstances which arise. The agrarian revolution was rendered necessary by a set of circumstances similar to those existing In Russia. It came to the same end under democracy as under dictatorship. But under democracy the revolution was carried out more peacefully, systematically, and consciously, iu a less chaotic and disturbing inanner and less to the special advantage of favored or reckless sections of the peasantry. The agrarian reform was introduced by a decree of December 16, 1917, of the first provisional government, in Transcaucasia (Georgia, Aserbaijan, and Armenia), which was formed after lIs separation from Russia. The SocialDemeratic Party of the Transcaucasian Parliament, which met in February, 1918. Introduced an agrarian law which was passed on March 7. This was valid for the whole of Transcaucasia. But jt was only carried out In
249
Georgia, which soon separated frs.m Aserbaijan and Armenia. The law expropriated every large landowner. No compensation was paid to him, but he was allowed to retain as much land as he could till, with his family-that is, a medium-sized peasant holding. The maximum extent of land which a single family could own might not exceed 7 dessJatlnen (1 dessJatin equals 21/j acres) of gardens or vineyards, 15 dessJotinen of arable land, or 40 dessJatinen of pasture land. All estates which exceeded these dimensions are taken into the possession of the State and form a land reserve. Well-conducted, intensive, large-scale cultivation is maintained as far as possible, and is either carried on under the auspices of the State or devolved upon the local assemblies. The remainder, consisting of gardens and arable land, Is used to Increase the holdings of poor peasants. Tile peasant. who was formerly a tenant, obtains possession of the land which lie cultivates. 'aistnre land is chiefly given up to common usage. The act passed on Murch 7, 1918, prescribed that poor peasants needing lan( could only lease portions of the land reserve from the State. But a new act, passed on January 29, 1)19, specified thut they could purchase the State land at a moderate price. This Is certainly not a socialistic step. but it was rendered unavoidable by the pressure of the peasants. It was also expected that the peasant, when he became the owner of his land, n~ould more readily make Improvements and adopt a rational systeia of cultivation than when he was a mere tenant. Bolshevism must likewise compound with this settlement. lHoth Georgia and ltussla are now In the same economic stage as was France at the beginning of the great revolution. Peasant proprietorship Is not, however, tmpletely free In Georgia. In every sale of land the State has the first right of purchase. In this manner about 2,000,000 dessJathien of gardens and arable land, pastures and woods have been acluircd, of which the cultivated land amounts to about half ui million dessjatinen. Pasture land Is almost 1,000,000 dessJatinen. In addition, the woods and domains of the old Russian State and of the ezarl.A families have reverted to the Geiorglan State. which has thus become possessed of an enormous extent of land. Including woods whieh formerly belonged to tho Russian State or czarist families, tile waole (of the forests of Georgia comprises 2.001)000 dessJatinen, or one-third of the exploitable land of the country, and this land remains In the hands of and is managed by the Georgian State. In addition, there are great model undertakings whihh are either managed by the State or by the lowal councils, and numerous mineral springs. some of wilch are equipped with adequate technical apparatus. These also have -passed into tho possession of the State, which has likewise sequestrated all water power. The latter will become a source of immense wealth in the future. Its average mechani-al sower is estimated tit two million and at quarler horsepower. of which only 3.400 are actually exploited. All harbor sites belong to the State. and last. but inot least, the revolution has made the State tile master of all mineral wealth. Hitherto the state has not been able to secure the mdful staff and machinery to work the mines to advantage itself, but the coal fldlfs of Tkvibull are directly exploited by the state. Other mines are leased, such as the manganese deposit, cf Ts.hlaturl and (he copper mines of Allaverdi to a French company, and others In the not been of Batoum toso German company (Shuckert). Xationationtion has district undertaken a energetically and consciously in the manufacturing industries, as in the mining and agricultural branches. Their present stage of development is little suited to state management. Only isolated undertakings among them have been nationalized, not because of the iorlnciple, but for special reasons. Generally speaking, it may be said that all that can be nationalized under existing conditions has been nationalized, and no further progress can be made. According to statistics of the ministry of labor, there were 73,480 workers engaged in large Industrial undertakings In Georgia in 1920. Of these 38,743 (52.7 per cent) were occupied in state undertakings; 20.592 (28 per cent) in municipal, cooperative, and local undertakings, and only 14,151 (19.3 per cent) in private undertakings. This will show how insignificant private industry is in Georgia at the present time. In regard to commerce, some export monopolies have been introduced, such as manganese, tobacco, silk, and wool. These are fiscal rather than soe'alistic measures. and It remains to be seen how they succeed. For export trade, a state bureaucracy Is as unsuitable an agent as is possible; the Georgian bureaucrats are very inexperienced, and the traditions left behind by their
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA predecessors, the czarist bureaucracy, are the worst possible. The world market i.q at present as difficult to survey as ever It was. To enable Georgia to thrive, it Is necessary to open up many new branches in trade as well as in industry. In the state in which the country finds itself, private capital can not be dispensed with In the establishment of such new branches. In this economic reconstruction a great part may be played by county councils, communes, and cooperative societies, the adm'uistratlons of which are more flexible and capable of a greater Initiative than the lumbering economic machinery of the state. The revolution has brought complete self-government to the counties and niunlcipalities of Georgia. This self-government had to be created de nova in place of the centralized, bureaucratic tutelage from above. All experience waij lacking, and sometimes the necessary resources. In spite of this, the young institutions have developed a vigorous life, and we have already seen that some large agricultural undertakings have been transferred to the Municipalities. The provincial assemblies have also established their own dispensaries, and mills, spinhouses, and other undertakings for working up and completing the raw products of the province. In addition, draining and irrigation works have been taken In hand by them. Likewise, the regulation of the medical service. The 21 assemblies are combined in a union, which holds congresses for the exchange of experiences, and the collection of Information. The union has appointed a committee of experts which overlook the individual undertakings of the municipality, and tender advice. These institutions are too new to allow a decisive judgment to be passed on them, but a healthy life pulses through them, and the course they have followed Is already full of promise. The above applies equally to the cooperative societies. They are depreciated by many Socialists, owing to the fact that they are represented by the advocates of harmony as a panacea to cure the evils of capitalism. This is nonsense. The great capitalist monopolies can be dealt with only by the power of the State when it is directed by the proletariat. In those spheres where the monopolistic character of capital has scarcely made itself felt, the production carried on by organizations of consumers can create socialistic conditions of production, if these consumers' organizations are dominated by the socialist outlook, and thus are in the hands of proletarians conscious of their part in the class struggle. In this sense the consumers' cooperative societies maj become of special miportance In countries where industry is as yet undeveloped, but where a classconscious proletariat already exists. In such places the cooperative societies may take In the peasantry, which has not yet become consciously antagonistic to the proletariat, as In western Europe, and make its purchasing power of service. In building up the cooperative industry which will trise in competition with the capitalist Industry, and tends to restlet and moderate the Influence of the latter over workers and consumers. In such a country as Russia the cooperative societies may assume unsuspected importance for the proletarian class struggle, and the establishment of socialism. This also holds good for Georgia. Its cooperative organizations were first formed in the czarist period, but only since the revolution have they been able to develop freely, and they have expanded rapidly. Already In May, 1916, the consumers' societies of Transcaucasia (Georgia. Aserbaijan, and Armenia), to the number of 126, united to form a wholesale buying agency. Five hundred and sixty-five societies were attached to this union In 1917, and in 1919, In Georgia alone there were 989 societies, with about 300.000 members. The Union of Cooperative Societies began to produce on Its own account in 1919. A silk factory is established, a sausage factory, engineering works. which turn out agricultural Implements; then vegetable and fruit preserving factories, and finally a printing press. None of these undertakings works at a loss and inst of them yield a surplus. It is all to the good that the cooperative societies have proceeded slowly aid cautiously In laying the foundations of their productive activities. The stormy movement, which corresponds to the revolutionary temperament and is ini place when hostile positions are to be captured, is not advantageous in the founding of economic organizations. In this case It Is necessary to make careful preparation to be sure of tho ground before advancing, and not to go further than is allowed by the avail-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OEOROIA
251
able resources,. In economics it is not the same as in war, where a vigorous offensive often obtains the best result, but not in every case. The Bolshevist outlook, which envisages, the socialistic reorganization of the processes of production as a problem in military tactics, is generally doomed to failure. In the economic domain overhasty procedure always leads to disasters, which may sometimes Jeopardize the whole movement, and entails the buying of experience very dearly. . The Georgian methods of socialization are, with all their energy, quite free from overhaste and the danger of reaction. Thanks to the fact that they are based on democracy, they have kept clear of that species of State and Barrack socialism, which imagines that social production" can be introduced by rigid centralization of the entire productive forces, and their subjection to the dictatorship of a small committee, excluding all self-government. Our Georgian comrades know that many roads lead to socialism as well as to Rome. The problem of social production may be attacked from many sides, and State control forms only one of those starting points. Finally, socialistic production is Impossible without the fullest development of the capabilities of the workers, which can be attained only by the complete liberty of political parties, trade unions, cooperative societies, the municipalities, and Provinces. The stretching of all these institutions upon the procrustean bed of an alloppressive and all-reaching centralized dictatorship means death to that kind of socialism which signifies the emancipation of the proletariat. The letter socialism Is what we should aim -at. Democracy, and that alone, can provide for the complete liberty and possibilities of development of the workers, individually and as a class. The communists think that they are uttering deep wisdom when they speak of "formal democracy." They teach us that the equality of citizens under democracy is but a formal equality, as economic Inequality is not thereby removed. That the mere casting of a vote Is an empty form, as the economic relations of power are not thereby disturbed. We knew all this quite'well at a time when the present communists were still in their cradles, but Itkas not prevented us from agitating for democracy. For it spells freedom of ihWestlgation, of discussion, of propaganda; the freedom of public meeting' and of organization; the fullest participation in the self-government of muniipalitles and provinces, in the legislation of the State, and in the control and determine. 41 tion of the Government. Only a fool cam assert that all these liberties and possibilities are of a merely formal nature and make no difference to the position, the capacities, and strength of the proletariat and the laboring masses. In lucid moments the communists themselves recognize the Importance of democracy and believe it will be of use to them, as they say that the proletariat needs democracy-which in their eyes is an instrument of capitalistic domination-only so long as the capitalist class rules, So soon, however, as the proletariat has captured the power, democracy ceases, according to communist doctrines, to be a means for the development of proletarian strength and capacity. Then It becomes a danger for the proletariat; henceforth the proletariat must renounce illindependence and submit itself blindly to the absolute domination of the Government which it has placed in power. Accord. Ing to this conception, the proletariat needs democracy only when it is in the fighting stage, but when it Is successful It requires an absolutism, which is different from zardom only by its communist enlightenment. It may well be wondered how such a doctrine could find disciples" outside Russia. But it should not be forgotten that the enlightened absolutism of Russia in former times understood how to arouse enthusiasm for its social institutions and actions among naive spirits In western Europe, and especially in France. If a Diderot and a Voltaire could be inspired by Catherine the Second, why should not the far less witty Cachin and Loriot perceive In the dictatorship of the Moscow party leaders over Europe the way to the emancipation of the proletarl,,t and the progress of mankind?
CnAPTr VII, THE DIFFICULTIES OF THe GovmNMuzqT
However favored Georgia may be by nature, and however rational the democratic methods of its socialist government, its situation was anything but brilliant. We have already described the chief causes of its distress. They consist in the dependence of the economic life of Georgda upon foreign countries.
252
Without the importation of corn, as well as of industrial products. and' a corresponding exportation of its own products, such as manganese, copper. tobacco, wool, silk, and wine, the country can not exist. The old trade con. nections were destroyed by the war, which still continues on the borders of Georgia, and renders difficult any relations with other countries. This is doubly unfortunate at a time when world commerce is impeded by various measures arising out of the aftereffects of the war and the general lack of confidence, which would be merely ridiculous if they d!d not involve the ruin -of the people. The Georgian Government Is not in a position to change these disastrous international conditions, and thus the people of Georgia. like so many other peoples. must suffer from their effects. The inhabitants of the capital of Tiflis were hit the hardest. Until the revolution Tiflis was the political center of the whole of the Caucaslus, a territory with about 10,000,000 people. To-day it forms the capital of little Georgia, with 3,000.000 inhabitants. This country by itself must sustain tht 400,000 inhabitants of Tiflis. This would not have been a simple matter in a state of uninterrupted world trade, but the task assumes fearful proportions In the conditions of restricted trade. Add to this that Tiflis, instead, of losing its inhabitants, revealed a large increase of population. .For with all its distress It was a paradise when compared with its neighbors, Armenia, Aserbaijan, and Russia, where Bolshevism reigns, not only with hunger and misery, but also with sullen silence and everlasting fear, with the lack of all freedom of speech and of the press, with denunciations, arbitrary imprisonments, and shootings, with brutality and cruelty. Those who can flee from this hell-the conterrevolutionarles to Europe; the workers from the towns to the villages, many democratic and social-democratic intellectuals. and qualified workers fled to Tufls. Even "iolsheviats sometimes sought a refuge there, in order to recover from communism. Through this immigration the intellectual life of the town was variously stimulated. Eminent men of learning andartists from Russia met together here. But the house famine was made ten times worse. After high prices the housing shortage Is the most generally diffused aftereffect of the war. It Is to be found even in New York. The war has used up so much capital and so much of the productive forces that with what Is left one is only able to live laboriously from hand to mouth. There is neither capital nor resources for undertakings which will repay the outlay on them only after many years. Above all, not for buildings. All building activity is paralyzed. In addition, humerous dwelling places situated on the various theaters of war have been destroyed, and the inhabitants driven into countries which were spared by the war. In those countries the accommodation, not having been increased, suffices no longer. Again, In those countries which did not take part in the war the population has been increased by the normal processes, which still more accentuates the housing difficulty. Although the shortage is by no means confined to Tiflis, together with the lack of food, it has been ascribed by the communist propaganda there to the socil-demoe'atic government. This propaganda is addressed to the simple folk who do not know that in Russia not merely dearness but the most desperate hunger prevails. The housing shortage Is certainly abating In many of its towns. In Petrograd thousands of houses are empty, as of the population of that city one-third has either starved, or frozen, or fallen victims to pestilence or the extraordinary commission. Another third has fled to the villages, and the remaining third still prolongs an anxious existence In the town. As in the case everywhere else in the world, the building of new houses in Georgia is much Impeded by the absence of long credits. This is connected with the general lack of capital, but also with the wretched state of the exchange. This constituted the weakest point in the economic life of social-democratic Georgia. The Georgian rouble was last year worth less In gold than was formerly worth a kopeck, although -its value remained considerably higher than that of a rouble of the Russian Soviet Republic. As is the case with other countries, the principal cause of the fall in the value of the Georgian rouble Is to be looked for In the inflation of the currency and the excessive output of paper money. One immediate result of the
258
revolution was to reduce considerably the revenue of the state. The old state constitution, being corrupt and Inimical to the. people, had to be radically reformed, which was not a simple matter In view of the lack of native experience. The new state meeibnery did not always work well. It takes time to accustom the emancipated 1vesant to pay taxes, and the revenue from duties was very slight In consequence ef the paralysis of trade. The state posessions alone will suffice to cover the national expenses when once they are properly exploited, and all taxation would be rendered unnecessary. The budget of 101-20 estimated the Income of the state at 740,000,000 rubles, of which 576,000,000, or 76 per cent, would represent revenue from the national properties. But the war has thrown the state undertakings Into a condition of confusion and lowered the revenue from them. The large estates, which were taken over from the old reglme, yield a surplus, it is true, but this is not very large. Before the war the railway was one of the few Russian state lines which earned a net profit. On account of the lack of masuth mnd the great exhaustion of material by the war, and lately by reason of the cessation of trade, the services had been so restricted that they barely covered the run. ring co.ts of the undertaking. Repairs can only be effected out of state resources, and many repairs are necessary. Generally speaking, the exploitation of the national properties of Georgia, such as the forests and mines, has not yet been undertaken. Before they can be set working large outlays are needed for roads and railways. Thus a great portion of the state possessions yield no immediate revenue but entail expenditure. Simultaneously other branches of state expenditure have grown enormously. I. is not merely a question of repairing the Immense damage wrought by the war, but ci d,=--0..- r(, mnde on the Government because of its socialistic character. A Socialist government-is not only expected to prepare the way for the development of socialistlc production, which, measured by our Impatience, is a protracted task. It must also put an immediate end to all the poverty which it finds in existence. If the kind of poverty which capitalism creates is to be found in Georgin In no small degree, all the more abundant Is the poverty which has been accumulated by the check to capitalist development--poverty which has arisen from feudalism, absolutism, and war. To make an immediate end of this poverty, with the scanty and Impoverished resources of the State, is a task which no government could achieve unless It were possessed of magical powers. And our comrades who have been placed in power by the revolution were not only wizards, but Menshevists. who neither believe themselves nor seek to persuade the oulslde world that a dictatorship endows them with magical powers. However much the Government might strive to keep the tasks which it set itself within the bounds of economic possibilities, the everlasting demands which were pressed upon It surpassed so much the extent of the available income of the State that the printing press was the only resource which was left. Con.equently, there was a constant fall in the value of the rouble and a continual increase In prices. The evil was still more accentuated by the adverse trade balance. Trade with Russia, which formerly constituted the chief port of the export of tobacco,. wine, mineral waters, etc., has been destroyed to a large extent. This rendered maritime trade with Europe. via the Black Se. all the more Important. but this trade had been restricted for a long time owing to the lack of shipping space. Georgia imported from Europe highly valuable Industrial products, which occupied little space. In exchange it had to offer only raw material, which, in relation to its value, occupied much shipping space. No wonder the value of imports exceeded the value of exports. In the year 191) Georgia Imported from western Europe. Turkey. and America goods to the value of 397.000.000 of roubles and exported goods to the value of only 93.000.000. In the year 120 the trade balance considerably improved. On the other hand, the Inflation still continued. All this tended to depress the exchange to the lowest point. Still worse than Ihe falling of the rate of exchange and the dearness which it caused was the constant fluctuations n the exchange, which occur In all countries with a system of paper money. This makes all business uncommonly difficult. Under these circumstances long-period credits are not to be looked for and short credits are available only under oppressive conditions. As no one knows what prices and 1.oney values will be in the future, there ia a preference for cash payments.
954
Credit is the most potent means to vivify the mass of capital which exists in
society. Without credit the scope of a given mass of capital is notably restricted. The effect Is especially paralyzing at a period when the mass of capital is greatly reduced by the ravages of war. Another circumstance is not less harmful. Under existing conditions there is little Incentive to Invest capital In undertakings which do not turn over their capital rapidly. Consequently there Is the strongest motive to employ capital in money speculations and usury Instead of in Industry. So long as a capitalist mode of production exists, it is in the interest not only of the whole of society but also of the workers that the available capital be embarked upon productive industrial undertakings giving employment to workers and increasing the sum of commodities. It should not parasitically be employed in speculations and usury, which employ no workers, yield no products, and only increase prices. The system of paper money not only threatens the State with complete bankruptcy and with absolute worthlessness of the money which it issues; it has brought growing confusion and paralysis into the whole economic machinery. This condition can only be dealt with by placing the State finances upon a sound basis, by balancing income and expenditure, so that the activities of the printing press may be stopped. But howis the State to obtain the revenue it needs so long as trade and commerce are suspended? Thus we find ourselves In a vicious circle, out of which there seems to be no way; economy can not become healthy without sound finances, and these can not become sound unless economy becomes healthy. A considerable improvement could be effected if normal peaceful conditions were established among Georgia's neighbors, if the civil war and campaign of conquest ceased In Russia, AserbaiJan, Armenia, and Anatolia, and Georgia could find there a market for its own products, and could also resume In full measure its function as a trade channel connecting east with west. This general condition of peace would alone lead to a marked change In the economic position of Georgia. It Is also most desirable to remove the restrictions which hamper the traffic of steamers through the Dardanelles, and which are the result of the state of war still prevailing in that quarter. Then the postal' communications between Georgia and the outside world must be made more prompt and secure, The present state of these communications is deplorable, which naturally prejudices all business relations with Europe. Even when all these improvements have been introduced, the overcoming of the financial crisis of the country will remain a very difficult problem. It is hardly conceivable that the crisis can be completely mastered without a foreign loan which would cover the deficit of the exchequer for one or two yeats and thus grant the State a breathing space, during which It can function without using the printing press. If this respite were wisely and energetically used, it should be sufficient to develop so far the economic resources of Georgia that the finances could be placed on a stable foundation without requiring further assistance from outside. In this respect attention would naturally be paid first to an increased exploitation of the national possessions, which involves the building of railways, such as a line to the coal fields of Tkvartschell, and roads to open the great forests. With all this Is closely connected the encouragement of agriculture. The drainage of 50,000 hectares of swamps at Poti, the irrigation of 150,000 hectares in the east-for these improvements the preliminary work of survey has already been done-would suffice to render Georgia independent of outside help for its sustenance. An improvement of agriculture may already be expected from the transformation of the peasant from a leaseholder into a freeholder. This process can be accelerated by the giving of Instruction In agriculture. It Is true that the small extent of the holdings is an obstacle to a rational system of agriculture which is to yield a substantial surplus. And this surplus is all-important. It is recognized even by many supporters of small holdings In agriculture that large-scale production yields a larger net profit than small undertakings, but of the latter it Is asserted that the gross yield is greater. But even if this is the case, It would not dispose us more favorably to small holdings. The mass of mankind who live in society outside of agriculture depend upon its net profits. We speak of society and not of the State, because an individual State can find a way out by Importing the means of subsistence. Without a large surplus from agriculture, there can be no large population of those engaged In
NLA'1ONAT4 JIEPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
2554
intellectual and industrial pursuits, no high level of civilization, and therefore no technical progress in agriculture itself. The transformation of a rational system of large-scale agricultural production into small holdings signifies a decrease in the surplus yielded by agriculture. It means an increase in tle amount of labor-power required for agriculture, and a decrease in the noagricultural population, and thus a set-back to civilization. Militarists, who look to the peasants for numerous recruits, might well be enthusastlc for small holdings. Modern socialists, who have at heart, not the strength of the armies, but the level of civilization, must support large-scale agriculture. With the exception of the undertakings of the State and municipalities, few opportunities existed for large-s.ale agriculture In Georgia after the agrarian reforms. Large estates worked by private capital are scarcely likely to arise. Perhaps the transition stage to rational methods of agriculture may give rise to the development of the communal direction of husbandry. This Is already the case with pasture land. Communal agriculture would be largescale cultivation. There are many reasons why communal agriculture should be adopted In Georgia. We have seen above that the old type of plow requires 10 to 20 animals to draw it, with 4 and more men. Of course, these resources are not at the disposal of an individual small peasant. This difficulty Is overcome by several peasants Joining together for plowing their fields. Such cooperation is constantly found convenient for other purposes than plowing. As many as 50 small peasants combine together in order to perform the same work in common on one of their fields, after another, and thereby enjoy the benefits of this cooperation. This practice Is called by a special name, nadl, and the songs which are sung during work in common, to give to it the appropriate rhythm, are called nadurl. This system of combined labor would be more successful if the many small fields were not separated, but thrown together and worked according to a common plan. This should be made considerably easier after the partition of the land has equalized the size of the separate holdings. This process should also be aided by the introduction of modern agricultural machines, which the individual peasant is too poor to acquire, and which can be employed with success only over a large extent of ground. It Is therefore probable that in Georgia a system of cultivation by village communes will grow up, which, although not socialistic in the sense that it produces for the market, yet will be a nearer approach to socialism and a better organization of labor-power than agriculture which is based on small holdings. Meanwhile, the domain of agriculture is not the only sphere in which It Is needful to make good as quickly as possible the effects of the neglect and obstacles due to feudalism and absolutism. The general level of civilization must also be raised by an Improvement in education. In this province significant progress has been made by the Socialist Government, in spite of Its lack of resources. Finally, it is absolutely necessary for the prosperity of Georgia so to develop Its industry that, as far as possible, the raw materials are made use of in the place whbre they are produced. Paper factories and furniture factories to realize the wealth in the form of wood, factories for preserving fruit and vegetables, spinning and weaving sheds for wool, silk, and cotton are, above all, necessary. Next to them are wanted factories for the production of implements and simple machinery for agriculture. We have seen that the municipalities and the cooperative societies have already commenced to work on these lines. But we have also pointed out that they can only proceed very slowly If they are to maintain a secure footing and avoid mistakes. Moreover, they suffer from want of capital. Here there must also be some assistance from abroad if the development Is to be rapid and energetic. Only the western powers and America have the resources and experience available to permit large undertakings of this kind to be established and properly directed. But capitalism still prevails in those countries. For the present help can only take the form of the investment of foreign capital in Georgian industrial undertakings. Foreign loans to stabilize the State finances, to build railways, and construct Irrigation and drainage works, and foreign capital to establish factories are urgently necessary in the interests of the Georgian people and of the Georgian proletariat as well. Where capitalist economy is still the order of the day the
9113-26---17
NATIONAL
RBPMBTLO .0 OGO1R1&A
Worker thrives iest with a rapidly growing Industrial capital. A suspension of capitalist growth hits him the hardest ;The Georgian Socialist Ooverrent found Itself In the paradoxical situation of being obliged to create conditions which will attract capital--that Is, by promising a profit and giving the necessary guaranty that one fine day it will ated without compensation. not be ex~ This was not en easy problem for a socialist government to solve. But as this Government was composed of Menshevists, it was aware of the economic necessities and would do voluntarily what the Bolshevists are now compelled to do by circumstances, after they have pursued the opposite policy for several years past, in the doing of which they have fearfully devastated and ruined the whole of Russia.
CHAPTER Vll. CAPITALISM AND SOCIALISM
However difficult It may be for a socialist government, supported by the political power of the proletariat, to be obliged to encourage capitalist Industry, this is a problem which sooner or later confronts the Socialists in every European country. In the most Important States the proletariat Is already so strong and so matured in self-consciousness that It will not be long before It attains to political power not in spite of democracy, but precisely because its strength Is nourished by democracy. A world revolution In the Bolshevist sense Is, of course, not to be reckoned with. Such a revolution signifies the dictatorship of a Communist Party, which assumes power, because It alone controls all armed forces and disarms all the nonproletarian classes and the sections of the proletariat which are not communist. This situation arose after the military collapse, first in Russia and then in Hungary. It will not be repeated In any country, least of all in the victorious States. In these countries the proletariat can not gain the upper hand by means of a monopoly of arms but only as a majority by means of its preponderan. among the democracy. At the moment the democratic prospects of social democracy are In point of fact not favorable. The period of disillusionment and tension which follows upon every revolution has once more set In. Instead of a world revolution we stand on the threshold of a general reaction. But In no part of civilized Europe has socialism to-day suffered such a crushing defeat as was experienced by the middle-class revolution of 1849. and the Paris Commune of 1871. After these defeats the reaction lasted barely a dozen years, and this time It will be much shorter, perhaps only a matter of two or three years. It can be terminated In no other way than by the victory of social democracy in all civilized States, a social democracy which will not only be far stronger than it is to-day, but also far more Intelligent and experienced, thanks to the lessons of the present revolution, and thanks to the possibilities of a richer development of the capacity of the proletariat, through shorter working hours, workers' councils and other achievements which even the reaction will be obliged to leave intact. In a few years' time social democracy will find a far better economic foundation for Its activities than to-day, as by that time the worst effects of the war may have been overcome. But then all the social-democratic governments will be faced by the same difficulties as confronted the Georgian Government. Because of what the revolution has taught them, they will know that capitalism cannot be abolished at one stroke. Socialistic production can only be introduced gradually, and after careful preparation. If the wheels of production are not to come to a standstill, abd thereby plunge the whole of society, and especially the proletariat, Into the direst poverty, capitalistic production must be maintained In those branches of industry which are not yet to be socialized, and In some branches of production It may survive for generations. We may therefore expect to see everywhere socialist governments which will have to allow, and even encourage, capitalist production, in a whole series of branches of Industry. How isthe rule of the proletariat to be expressed under these circumstances? -The desire for profit or the extraction of surplus value from the labor power that is purchased Is not the only cause of the class antagonism between capital and labor. This antagonism Is also nourished by the power over labor which is invested In capital by Its monopoly of the means of production.
257
Every kind of social cooperation requires to be directed. But the capitalist becomes a captain of industry because he owns the means of production, and not because the workers and consumers have any confidence In his capacity or experience. In capitalist undertakings the master was originally an autocrat, who not merely managed the business, but dominated it personally. and gave It a code of rules. The worker was the object, not the subject of this legislation. The struggle of the worker against capital Is not merely directed against exploitation; that is, against the creation of surplus value, but also against the omnipotence of the captain of industry, against the attitude of "master in the house." Both parts of the class struggle are inseparable and closely connected with each other. In the one case, the restriction of the omnipotence of capital, visible progress Is achieved during the lifetime of capitalism, but not in the other case, the struggle against the exploitation of the workers. In the latter case, progress is only made through Increasing encroachments upon the domain of capitalistic production, and the extension of socialization. As regards the first-named aspect of the class struggle, progress commenced to be made 100 years ago, but In respect of the second aspect, It has scarcely begun as yet. The power of the master In industry tends to be restricted by the growing force of labor organizations and of the state, "the organized power of society." But this does not cause a diminution In the exploitation of labor, which often shows a tendency to increase. Every labor protection law, every factory inspector, every successful strike, every trade union which asserts Itself, lessens the power of the captain of industry. The revolution has considerably multiplied these restrictions, and added to them a new one in the shape of works councils. Thus, while during the course of the last century the factory has been transformed from an autocracy into a constitutional monarchy, the rate of surplus value has grown in the same period, so that the tendency In the rate of profit to fall has been always Impeded. This Is not an accident. The great historical task if industrial capitalism consists in increasing the productive power of labor to an enormous extent. This fact enables It to win easy triumphs In competition with pre-capitailstie modes of production. Only such restrictions as do not Impair the productivity of labor can be !mposed and maintained. The measures and institutions which we now have in mind have the effect of raising Instead of lowering the productivity of labor. They increase the capacity and intelligence of the worker and give him an Interest in the work and in the prosperity of the undertaking and branch of Industry to which he belongs. Their educational Influence is not confined to the worker but also extends to the employer. Nothing is more convenient or more simple than dictatorial power which does not need to exercise the mind In order to overcome all opposition. The dictum of Cavour that any fool could govern in a state of siege Is quoted with approval by people who are enthusiastic for the dictatorship that is only another name for a state of siege. Where the employer can act and rule as dictator, he can pass on all the consequences of incapacity, carelessness, and niggardliness In the conduct of the business to the workers, who are obliged to pay the penalty for obsolete methods and Improper conduct of a business, and for the lack of requisite materials. The stronger the workers and the state become In comparison with the employer, the greater their demands upon him, and their powers of resisting him; the more careful and Intelligent the conduct of the business must be, the more the employer must endeavor to make use of the most productive appliances and methods, the more of the extracted surplus value must be accumulated by the capitalist to permit the Introduction of improvements. In this way each step of progress made by the proletariat against capital, which is Inspired by economic foresight, and therefore does not aim at the destruction of machinery and similar things, results in creating a strong incentive to Increase the productive power of labor, which also involves the tendency to the growth of surplus value and exploitation. However paradoxical It may appear, the growth of the power of the working class over capital does not at the same time exclude the progression of the exploitation of that class, but may even provoke it. 'Phis explains why such growth does not impede the progress and development of production, but promotes It. So long as capitalistic production subsists, capital must extract a profit from industry, or else mark time, which harms
258
NATIONAL REPUBLIC 0P GEORGIA
the worker even more than the capitalist, as the former is dependent on the uninterrupted sale of his labor power. Crises and unemployment are the worst enemies of the worker, and nothing s greater than the folly of those "revolutionaries" who seek to save the proletariat by clogging the wheels of production, and increasing the gravity of the cris. The workerW" councils will become effective and make themselves a definite power in the process of production, when they succeed, In the same way as labor protection and trade unions have succeeded, in raising the productivity of labor. If they should aim at decreasing It and permanently impeding the process of production, they would be soon played out The necessities of production are the most Irresistible of the needs of society. Thry show themselves to be more potent than the bloodiest terrorism. As long as capitalist production lasts, It will Involve the necessity of a certain rate of profit, and the tendency to the growth of exploitation. It will be possible to remove these necessities and these tendencies when Socialist production is substituted for capitalist production, and social property Is established in place of private property. The possibilities of this transition first arise in an advanced stage of capitalism, but not for all branches of industry at the same time. Railways, mines, and forests are by their nature suited to become s&Jal possessions, but most luxury trades will remain in private hands until a later period. The abolition of exploitation by means of socialization can therefore only proceed gradually, and the whole of industry can not be liberated at one stroke. On the other hand, many restrictions of the power of the employer, such as the 8-hour day or workers' council, way be Imposed upon the whole extent of industry at once. The mass of surplus value in society, which is appropriated by the capitalist class, Instead of falling to the workers or being used in the general interests of so !ety, will not be diminished as a result of the increased power in the process of production which the working class secures. but will be decreased In the degree that the scope of the capitalist is narrowed by the socialization of single branches of industry. It is quite Impossible io cut away profit from those branches of industry, constantly diminishing in number, where capitalist production still exists, and may continue to exist for the present, before the private character of the ownership of such means of production is altered. The abolition or even the visible restriction of profit in this sphere would clog production generally. Matters would only become worse if an attempt were made to restart businesses by means of a policy of terrorism. Where tbe employer Is superfluous, Industry should be socialized. Where he IP still necessary, he can not be compelled by force to manage his business In a reasonable and conscientious manner, Just as the war worker can not be coerced into doing good work. Not compulsdon but interest in the result secures the best quality work on the part of employers as on the part of wage viorkers. All this may not sound very revolutionary, but Marx would not have devoted the best years of his life to the writing of "Capital," and this would not have been greeted as the "Bible of the working classes," If the mere possession of power had sufficed for the emancipation of the working class, and a knowledge of the laws of capitalist economy had been superfluous. A Socialist government must take these laws Into consideration. As regards this point, the distinction between a socialist and a nonsocialist government is of the following description. The problem of the socialization of a branch of Industry has two sides, one, the degree of Its economic development, particularly the concentration of Its capital and resources, the nature of its direction (whether by employer or by managers), and the conditions of the market for Its goods. The other aspect, which Is most important, Is the power of the classes which are Interested In socialization. A number of branches of trade and industry have long been ripe for socialization, and urgently require It, in the general social Interest as well as for the benefit of the proletariat. But the principle of socialization remains unapplied, because Its champions are weak. On the other hand, there Is a whole category of restrictions which could be Imposed upon the power of capital without lessening the productivity of labor, which they would even raise, and which are not yet put into force because the proletariat lacks the requisite power to do so. When the proletariat Is strong enough to put a Socialist government in power, this step will enable It to enforce all necessary measures of socialization, and to Impose all reasonable restrictions upon the will of the employer. But every care must be taken to avoid overestimating the efficacy of mere power,
NATIONAL REPTUDLIC OF GEORG I2A

and thinking that its possession alone is sufficient to Insure the fulfillment of the desires and the satisfaction of the wants of the proletariat, at one stroke. A Socialist government must always keep steadily in mind that its activities are restricted by the economic necessities and possibilities, and it may not overstep these limitations without jeopardizing society and the progress of the workers to better conditions of living. With every measure of socialization, it must verify exactly the condition of the branch of industry, and the capabilities and resources which are at its disposal. With every limitation which it sets upon the will of the employer it must consider whether the productivity of labor will not thereby be lessened." It must ceaselessly strive to develop the productive forces of the country, and, in so far as this is not yet possible by socialist means and methods, capitalist measures to further this object must be permitted, and under circumstances even encouraged. The Social-Democratie Government of Georgia has been guided by these principle. , and in this have shown themselves to be intelligent pupils of our great masters, Marx and Engels. Whenever a social-democratic government may come into power it will be obliged to act on the same principles, and the benefit of the Georgian experience will be at its disposal. The idea that the only task of a socialist government is to put socialism into practice is not a Marxist one, but pre-Marxist and utopian. It conceives of socialism as an ideal picture of a complete society. Like Ideal conceptions generally, Its nature is very simple. Once it has been thought out, only the necessary power is required to realize this Ideal everywhere and under all circumstances. When this result does not immediately follow on the posses. sion of power, it Is due either to treachery or to cowardice. A socialist government has no other task than the putting into practice of the ideal socialist state. The more absolute its power, the more effectually it will be able to do this. This conception of the task of socialism was completely upset by Marxism. The starting point of Marxism was the class struggle, which is waged under the conditions of capitalist production by the proletariat, itself the product of industrial capitalism. The task of social democracy is to raise the physical, intellectual, moral, and organizing powers of the proletariat, as well as to bring plan and method Into the isolated proletarian struggles. This implies that the proletariat must be taught what is the social and economic objective which alone can satisfy it and put an end to its struggles. This objective is the emancipation of the working class, which from being the mere tool will become the master of production. Among the working class must be counted not only the industrial proletariat, but likewise peasants, handworkers, and intellectuals. But the proletariat forms the strongest and most dependable factor in this development. This objective Is the goal of the socialist movement. Its realization may come about in various ways, which will depend upon the prevailing modes of production, the relative strength of classes, the degree of their organization, in. telligence, and discipilae, and so forth. The forms of socialism may vary considerably in different countries, at different times, and in different branches of Industry. They must everywhere be related to the existing forms of produetion and permit their further development. The common element of all of them will be the common ownership of the means of production and management by social Institutions with the object of satisfying the common need whether that be the need of the state, the municipality, or cooperative societies Instead of private ownership of the means of production and private production for the market to secure private profit. Socialist production will not be the realization of an ideal conception of a complete society which has been previously though out, but the result of a fluctnating process of development, a result which in no way excludes or renders unnecessary further development, but which forms merely the starting point of a new order of social development. The endeavor can and should be made to-day to visualize the picture of the coming socialist mode of production, but It must also be remembered that the reality will be far different from any mental picture and that the most thorough investigations at the present time will never succeed In revealing all of the agents that will enter into the development of the future and in esti. mating how great a significance every one of these agents will assume. The better we are able to Investigate the present, the deeper will be our Insight Into the future. But the forms of the future society will always be more mani. fold than is possible for to foresee, and new momenta will constantly arise
260
which are Inconceivable to us to-day. We may expect great surprises before us in this sphere. Nevertheless the socialist goal has a great significance for us. Champions of the labor cause will the more readily avoid the contradictions and waste of strength in their daily political and economic policies and effect the Ink provement and liberation of the working people the more speedily the more they estimate how far each one of their demands and measures will subserve or prejudice the ultimate objective. As we have already observed, the development of the productivity of labor is closely connected with the objective of the transformation of the property basis of the means of production and with the establishment of the widest self-government and freedom of expression and organization of the laboring masses. From the standpoint of this conception, the task of socialists In relation to socialism assumes a shape very different from the stanpoint of pre-Marxian socialism. The creation of a system of socialist production is now neither Such a system is rather to be conthe sole nor the first task of socialists sidered as the end of their endeavor, the result of their total activity. Their duty Is, under all circumstances, the elevation and strengthening (if the proletariat, the giving it a keener insight into the economic process and its destiny and the extension of the productivity of labor. This is the task of every Socialist party. From this point of view Socialist parties will become possible and necessary everywhere, even In countries where the prerequisites of Socialist production do not yet exist, provided that they contain an industrial proletariat. The position will be in no way modified when a Socialist party gains political power, which permits it to set up a Socialist government. The immediate task of such a government would likewise be to Increase the strength and insight of the proletariat, to subject the capitalist to the control of the State, and to develop the productivity of labor; but not under all circumstances Immediately to abolish capitalism in Its entirety and put socialism into practice. To how great an extent socialism can be introduced must depend upon the degree of ripeness which the country has reached. If the tasks of a Socialist government are conceived in this wise, it will be clear that the existence of such a government in an economically backward country is compatible with the Marxist theory, according to which the prerequisites of socialism are only to be found in a highly developed capitalism. A socialist regime Is thus possible under economically backward conditions, if the State is democratic and the industrial proletariat is superior In intelligence and organization to the other classes which express their strength by and through democracy. Provided also that the Socialist government remains always conscious of the limits of Its power and does not attempt more than it can achieve with the strength and resources at Its disposal, and if, finally, it is anxious to develop the productive forces and to strengthen tV'e proletariat. From being the champion of the special interests of the proletariat it will become the representative of the general social interests. In this capacity It will be enabled to marshal behind it the majority of the nation and maintain their allegiance. Such a government must be guided by the principle that by limitation the master reveals himself. A Socialist government which does not restrict Its endeavors to the economic necessities and possibilities, but allows Itself to be In. fluenced only by the needs of the proletarians and the eagerness for power of many party friends, so that it plunges into an immoderate policy of extravagant radicalism, a Socialist government of this kind will never accomplish a lasting liberation of the proletariat and an Increase in the productive forces, but It is sure to end in a new servitude by completely destroying the productive f6rces, which will mean an indeftnite postponement of its hopes. The Government of Georgia has chosen the method of masterly limitation, and the country and the proletariat have felt the benefit of it. It is true that an economically backward country can never become a pioneer In the development of Socialist forms. So far, Marxism requires no modification. Only such advanced Industrial countries as England and Germany can develop models of socially worked undertakings, which, owing to the object lesson they will teach, will find speedy recognition and imitation In backward countries.
If highly developed countries should soon come under a Socialist regime, this fact will determine whether their assistance will cause the further develop-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GFORGU
261
iment of the productive forces in backward countries to assume socialist forms and prevent the widening of the scope of capitalist production. It is within the realm of possibility that such a r~gime will appear in Germany and England in the course of a few years--fter the present reaction has been overcome. This will provide a SoclallRt government in Georgia with a new support. Thus the possibility existed that this government would be able to maintain itself in power without resistance. The immediate danger was not from within but from without.
CnAPYK
IX. Tnz
PBMAWENCK OF THE SOCIAL DEMOonATIO PARTY
No government of the day was more firmly established than the Georgian Government. We have seen how unusually large was the majority of the Social Democratic party in the Georgian Parliament. None of the opposition parties dreamed of overturning the government or altering its policy. In addition to the overwhelming majority in the parliament, the government was supported by the overwhelming majority of the population. The modern section of the proletariat, which Is the politically decisive class in present day Georgia stood fast behind the government, which maintained a close association with It. The Communist party did Indeed exist, and enjoyed the fullest liberty in all its movements which were not directed to raising an armed rebellion; there was no obstacle In the way of its open propaganda and legal organized activity and the latter ends were eagerly pursued by the side of an equall' energetic underground movement. The party operated with the most lavish resources which emanated from Soviet Russia, but in spite of all this, It did not oucceed in gaining a following of any importance. In contrast to the rest of Europe, bolshevism has been familiar In Georgia from the commencement, and there it deceives nobody. In spite of boundary divisions, the Georgians are too closely connected with Russia not to know exactly how things are there, and, in comparison with the hell which Soviet Russia represents, Georgia appeared as a paradise. The workers also know -exactly the fearsome oppression which weighs upon the working class of Russia, and the complete loss of rights and impotence of all sections of the proletariat which do not cower In servile obedience before the dictatorship; they perceive clearly that the dictatorship, which is supposed to be a dictator. ship of the proletariat, has led and must lead to the dictatorship over the entire population, Including the proletariat, as dictatorship, by its essence,. means that even the ranks of the nominal ruling class are subjected to the despotism of the Government. The workers of Georgia regard the soviet Tdg me with peculiar bitterness, as Its faithlessness toward its small neighbor becomes more obvious every day. The communists boasted, from time to time, that they were recruiting their ranks from the Georgian proletariat. But, whenever an opportunity arose it revealed their insignificance. Thus they commenced a great agitation amongst the railwaymen. A brilliant result was to be achieved. Just as I was depart. Ing, a congress of ralwaymen was held in Tiflis which was going to demon. strate that the confidence of the railway workers In the government had been completely shattered. The communists expected to dominate the conference. Behold, when the delegates were counted, one single communist was found among them. All the others, and there were over 80, were Social-Democrats. I had a similar experience with all the labor conferences at which I had the opportunity to be present. In Europe to-day we frequently meet with an intermediate form of socialism, which, dazzled by the apparent results of Bolshevism, declares in theory for the dictatorship of the Soviets, but contrives to keep on firm ground, so that, in practice, it declares for democracy and applies the methods of democracy. This method is quite unknown in Georgia; neither from the left nor the right ' was any considerable opposition forthcoming to the Social-Democratic gov. erminent. One might, at least, have expected some resistance from the large landowners who have been expropriated. In reality they have acquiesced In their fate, which overtook them with all the force of a natural catastrophe; they know they are played out, and that any attempt to reestablish the old
262
NATIONAL BIPUBUC OF GEORGIA
order would raise against them the entire nation. Not a few of them were giving faithful and Intelligent service to the Republic. The aristocrats of the great French Revolution, likewise those of the present Russian Revolution, would have accepted their fate as an inescapable dispensation, had they not found allies abroad to arouse In them hopes of a restoration. The Georgian princes have not enough friends abroad who would seek to Intervene in their favor. The only power whose interference In the Internal affairs of Georgia was to be feared was the Russian Soviet Republic, and should they do so. the late landlords would fall out of the frying pan into the fire. The Social-Democratic r~glme has, Indeed, taken the land from them without compensation, except for the peasant holding which enables them to live by the labor of their hands; but It has not mishandled their persons, It has respected their humanity. It shared the view of Marx that we are not fighting the capitalists as persons, but are attacking their functions. go far as the functions of capitalists are indispensable, we propose they should be changed from private functions to social functions; so far as their functions are superfious or harmful, we shall abolish them In an economic organization In which there will be no place for them. The Bolshevist regime has not merely undertaken the campaign against the functions, but also against the persons of the capitalists and landowners, even after they have ceased to be exploiters, and have become proletarians In reality, as well as against those who are not willing or able to offer resistance to the new r~glme. And Bolshevism was not satisfied to render these persons merely harmless, it had also degraded them and trodden them under foot, and Inflicted Infinite torture upon them, and has aroused against them the lowest Instincts of the proletariat. In Georgia the expropriators, as well as the expropriated, have been spared this mutual degradation. The expropriated have likewise refrained from any attempt to resist their fate. The alternative which confronted them-the Bolshevist rdgime-was too terrible. Weudal lords belong to the past. The capitalist constitutes the exploiting power of the present. We have already seen why their political power in Georgia was negligible. Only a few of them are engaged In industry, and most of them represent the parasitic forms of capitalism-as usurers, profiteers, and landlords In towns. Among them, Armenians preponderate, and they are not loved by the Georgian people. The cause of this antagonism is described differ. ently by each side, but the underlying facts remain the same. Interpretations of the facts differ. The one side despises the Armenians as dirty, unscrupu. lous traders and usurers; the other side declares the Armenians are thrifty and Industrious. The Georgians, on the other hand, have retained too much feudal carelessness and love of enjoyment; therefore, the Armenians maintain over them an economic advantage. Besides Armenians, there are Germans, Russiam Italianm, and Jews (who are considered a special nationality in Georgia), and members of other foreign nations amung the capitalists, but few members of the Georgian nation. The result of all this Is that the frequent great dissatisfaction of the capitalists with the present r gime finds no echo among the population, which, on the contrary, rejoices when they are severely treated. In capitalist circles, complaint was made that unreasonable measures were often adopted, so that, not merely were the parasitic activities of capital restricted, but obstacles were set up to its functioning in cases where it promotes the development of the productive forces. So far as I was able to Investigate such complaints, I could not become convinced of their justification. But It is possible, and even probable, that many mistakes of this order were committed In the excitement of a revolutionary period, among the difficulties of an economic system which had suffered destruction and confusion through the war, and in view of the lack of resources essential to the needs of capitalist production, which It is not the business of any capitalist interest to provide. In the difficult task of harmonizing the Interests of the proletarktt with the development of the productive forces under capitalist conditions, occasional mistakes on one side or the other could scarcely be avoided. All the complaints and all the discontent in capitalist circles did not, however, crystallize in any important movement of political opposition. From this side the Social-Democratic government had not the least to fear. The only chance of democratic opposition was that the capitalists might succeed in winning over the peasants to their side. But this is unthinkable.
NATIONAL REPUBIC OF GEOROIA
26a
The future of the Soflllst r4glin, on the basis of democracy, depends upon the peasantry. This i the case not alone in Georgia, but in a1 states where the proletriat doe not form the majority of the population. If demoacy should be unfavorable to the proletariat, this is ot due to the capitalists, whose numbers are welatively small, but to the peasnts. It the peasants form the majority of the population, and are hostile to the proletariat, the latter can not hope to establish its rule under democratic conditions. This fact is certainly unpalatable. It is in so way altered by the soviet system, which is also obliged to make terms with the peasants, and grant them peasants' councils. The division into workers! and peasants' councils makes the workers the masters of the towns and the peasants the masters of the countryside. Both classes may work together quite well so long as one does not interfere with the other, and each Is permitted freedom to act In its own sphere. But, unfortunately, in the long run, neither class may exist for itself alone; the towns have to rely upon the country, and vice versa. Once a common economic organism has been established, the mere form of the soviet constitution offers to the town proletariat no greater superiority over the country people than the system of democracy, assuming that each class is equally represented. The fact that the proletariat in RuSsia has become the preponderating force was not due to the soviet constitution. The collapse and dissolution of the Russian Army took place under conditions which left the Communist Party and its soldiers the only armed force in the state, and, in addition, the Russian peasants lacked all political disc!pine, and were without a comprehensive political organization. Where the proletariat, or the proletarian party, belonging to an agrarian state does not control the armed forces, it can only maintain Itself in power with the support of the peasantry. This support can not even be dispensed with In cases where the proletariat is backed by arms. For we know as Marxists, that in the last resort tate policy is decided not by machine guns, but by economic necessities. Upon this we base our belief in the effect of a mass strike. Upon this, too, is based the power of the peasantry in the kind of state we have been considering. The Industrial proletariat Is able to coerce the peasants as little as the peasants can coerce it. They must both learn to settle their differences peacefully, which is more likely to be done in a democracy than in a state of permanent separation of one class from the other. The problem Is not an easy one to solve. The antagonisms are very great. The proletarians must aim at the common ownership and social management of the means of production, but the peasant is the most tenacious and fanatical champion of private property in the means of production. If we should decide upon the policy of immediate and complete socialization, then this antagonism would inevitably develop into an implacable struggle between the proletariat and the peasants. But even the Bolshevists have not adopted this attitude, or elie they would not have surrendered the countryside to the peasants. So long as the mode of peasant production remains in existence, Its socialIzation is out of the question. Such a measure can only be adopted on the basis of large-scale management. The socialization of the great monopolistic undertakings starting with the mines and forests is as much in the interests of the peasant as of the working class, when It is carried out in a manner which will lead to increased productivity. The peasant is certainly skeptical and unsympathetic toward theoretical Socialism. He Is disposed to be friendly toward practical Socialism when it requires no sacrifice on his part. and achieves what we Socialists expect of It. In all events, the antagonism of the peasant as the seller and the proletariat as the buyer of the means of subsistence will persist. But It is not a class antagonism; in this manner, the peasants are confronted by the entire population of buyers of the means of subsistence, not only all the town dwellers, but also many village band workers and land workers. In this matter, democracy, in contrast to the Soviet system, would increase the number of those who would combine with the proletariat against the producers of the means of subsistence. The vital part of any proletarian regime will not be the relation to the capitalist class, but the connection with the peasants. The capitalists can soon 06153-26----18
NATIONAL RIBPULO OF O50601k

be disposed of, provided the economic conditions permit, and the peasants accord their support. If the capitalist class should know how to secure the determined and energetic support of the peasantry, the Issue would be doubtful, especially in, counties in which the peasants formed the largest class of the population. In this respect the conditions In Ueorgia are very favorable. We have seen that here the SociaI-Democrats have been the leaders and executors of th& aparlan revolution which liberated the peasants from all the vestiges of It Is true a similar relation exists also In Russia between the Bolshevist. and the peasants, and It existed in France in 1780 until the close of the revolution between the majority of the peasants and the Paris revolutionaries. In these countries the peasants everywhere backed the revolution so long as the reactionary powers threatened a restoration of feudal conditions. -But as soon as the danger was over, the peasants went over as one man into the ranks of the counter-revolution. In places they had already rebelled against the revolution, as we may recall La Vendee and the latest peasant revolts In Russia. We have hitherto seen nothing like this In Georgia, nor any Indication that a change will occur within a measurable time. What is the reason for the difference? One of the causes which, during the French Revolution, led to peasant revolts lay In the diversity of the peasants' conditions within the separate Provinces, of the country. There were some backward districts in which the feudal lord and the church functioned as protectors and advisers, and not as exploiters, of the peasants. When revolutionary France plunged into war, and required sacrifices from the peasants, especially In the form of recruits, the feudal lords had no difficulty in provoking the peasants to rebellion In many of these backward Provinces. What remains of the Russian Empire as Soviet Russia is better placed in this respect. It was far more of a unity after It lost its border States than was the old French monarchy. Had Russia retained its pre-war territory, Poland would easily have become far more dangerous than was La Vendee in 1708. On the other hand, another circumstance has influenced the peasant counterrevolution in Russia to a greater degree than In France. In my book on Terrorism and Communism I have already pointed out that the French peasant was relieved by the revolution from the necessity of selling corn, as, in addition to getting rid of the feudal burdens, he was exempted from paying taxes. This aggravated the task of feeding Paris, especially after the commencement of the war, when large armies became necessary, requiring great quantities of food. In their need, the townspeople frequently endeavored to assist themselves by Imposing forcible requisitions on the peasants, which the latter answered, where they could, by forcible resistance. But this state of affairs did uot last long, as the revolutionary armies soon pressed victoriously over the country's borders, and were in a position to feed themselves at the expense of the national enemies. This advantage Is lacking in the case of Russia. Its agriculture is so backward that only a slight surplus is yielded. If even before the revolution the peasant sold a great deal of corn, he did so because he and his family were. obliged to go hungry. As in France, heavy tributes were imposed on him by the state and the landowner; in order to pay these he was compelled to sell a considerable portion of his harvest to the towns and to foreign countries. Now that the tributes of the state and the landowner have been abolished, the peasant no longer needs to,sell. He sowed his ground more negligently, worked less and ate sufficient, which he could not do formerly. But hunger invades the towns. The plight of Soviet Russia Is all the worse because it has lost the most fertile districts, which yielded the most abundant harvests. Its armies have been numerous enough to lay waste large tracts of land, but not sufficiently victorious to cfnquer new territory beyond the borders from which to provision themselves. The red armies can only extend In the direction of the south, toward the Caspian Sea, Baku, North Persia, and Turkestan. They appear In these Mohammedan countries as allies of Pan-Islamism, as liberators from the yoke of European Imperialism, and as such are welcomed. But performance assumes a different shape from the promises. The peasantry of every district are plun-
feudalism.
NATIONAL REMuBLIC OF GEORGIA
265
dered to the utmost. Latterly, Bolshevist sympathies have greatly cooled In the Mohammedan world. The peasant in Russia proper can not be dealt with so recklessly as in these "liberated" territories. The requisitions made on him are less heavy, although more than he wants to give, and often more than he can. The dictatorship is acquainted with only one method of solving every problem-brute force. The tribute required is forcibly collected from the recalcitrant peasant. With the exception of peasant revolts and the devastation of villages, this method has only achieved one thing-the complete suspension of all efforts on the part of the peasant to make their industry yield a surplus. The cultivation of the land deteriorates. Lack of bread and hunger grow. Once more an appeal was made to force. A demand was being put forward in Soviet Russia that the peasant should be compelled to raise more crops. Such compulsory tillage was doomed, just as all previous forcible measures of Bolshevism have failed which have not been aimed at the destruction of what is existing but at the construction of a new economy. The protagonists of compulsory tillage have not properly considered what a gigantic apparatus is necessary to compel four-fifths of the population to do work. The present population of tha towns is not sufficient to supply the necessary controlling and police force. But even if the measure could be successful, which is out of the question, it would be nothing more than an immense revival of the old serf labor, which, next to slavery, is the least productive kind of labor. It would completely seal the economic downfall of Soviet Russia. One permanent result of all these experiments, if they are continued longer, or perchance multiplied, would be an increasing bitterness of the peasants toward the town proletariat. They would Immediately transform the peasants into a reactionary anti-Socialist mass as soon as the Entente abandoned its foolish policy of trying to establish a new landlord regime in Russia. Once this danger to the Russian peasants disappeared, the reaction would have full scope. It is possible that the parallel to old France might extend to the emerging of a new peasant emperor from the ranks of the revolutionaries. In the short period of its existence, the men of the dictatorship have undergone so many changes that the last-named rdle would not be difficult for many of them to assume. Even this would find enthusiastic support among those who admire only the success of the moment. Quite different from Russia have been the lines of development in Georgia. Instead of dictatorship, that country was ruled by democracy, and the Government could not simply dictate what it liked, and shoot at its pleasure those who did not obey Its instructions. The menace to the food supply of the Industrial population, caused by the liberation of the peasants, exists there as well as in Russia; the problem is common to all Eastern States which have passed through an agrarian revolution as a result of the war. The use of force against the peasants can not be thought of in Georgia. How, then, can the peasants be induced to produce a surplus and supply it to the towns? In considering this question, we sbpuld not forget that more than one hundred years have elapsed since the French Revolution. This has modified to some extent the problem which arose at that time. Then the village produced almost everything needed by agriculture-the village hand-worker supplied the peasants with what the latter did not produce himself. They had scarcely any need of the towns. To-day the peasant is dependent on large-scale industry, which manufactures his Implements and often his manure, when it is of an artificial nature. It supplies him with his clothes, as well as furniture, like iron bedsteads. The peasant Is anxious to have the products of industry, and in exchange for them is prepared to produce a surplus. The greater the variety of gods that Industry can furnish to him, the more intensively will he work his land, and the more he will be able to produce. The development of native industries and of foreign trade, to stimulate the importation of foreign products, Is essential if the peasant is to be induced to yield a surplus for the towns. The problem is not solved by the mere manufacture of paper money. The peasant whistles at this money if it does not enable him to buy industrial products.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA At bottom, the Bolhevists know this. But their attempt to apply the policy of Immediate socialization has killed native Industries, and their foreign propaganda In favor of the world revolution has not achieved the latter, but brought them the blockade. The extension of nat ve industries and of foreign trade Is the first condition for an augmented voluntary supply of food to the towns. The second is the raising of the productivity of agriculture itself. This is particularly necessary In countries where primitive agricultural methods obtain. The Georgian Government had realized these facts. Alongside of their endeavors to extend industry and trade, efforts were made to educate the peasants by means of model agricultural undertakings and schools, and to improve the means of communication and to construct drainage works, with which we have already dealt. Of course, such a program as this can not be carried out without the aid of large capital resources, which means heavy taxation, not only of the capitalists, but of the peasants as well. An Income tax had already been introduced, specially applicable to these two classes, and further taxes were bound to follow. The decisions on this point were likely to be vital for the Social-Democratic Republic. If the peasants exhibited a willingness to bear this taxation, It would have been possible to give better guarantees for the feeding of the towns than before; to permanently stabilize the exchange, and thereby give a rapid impulse to the growth of industry and trade, and the improvement of agriculture itself. Georgia would then have surmounted the crisis, which followed in the wake of t'.'e war, more easily and quickly than most of the European States and gained a secure economic basis. No great extension of agriculture is needed for the country to become self-supporting. Before the war it produced five to six million hundredweights of wheat. In addition to this, about one million hundredweights were Imported, but half a million hundredweights of maize were exported. Its deficit in breadstuffs, therefore, amounted to only half a million hundredweights. There was hardly a deficit in the case of other foodstuffs, with the exception of sugar. The difference between now and formerly lies In the fact that then great abundance prevailed, and to-day there is scarcity and dearness rather than gross shortage. The antagonism between workers and peasants, which would otherwise be so sharp, is softened by the circumstances just described. Even the Imposition of new taxes need not harden this opposition. A government emanating from the towns, hostile to the peasant, and not subject to his control, which demands from him contributions for purely urban purposes, is quite a different thing from a government which is partly elected by the peasant, through universal suffrage, Is controlled by deputies elected by himself, and aims at promoting his own welfare together with that of the town population. Only under democratic conditions, and not under a dictatorship, Is It possible to enlist the interest of the peasants in a State that Is ruled by the proletariat. In Georgia, the relation between the proletariat and the peasants is the best possible. They worked together cordially In the building up of a new economy. The peasants were Inspired by the greatest confidence in the proletarian leadership, and the latter did all that is possible to further the interests of the country alongside with its own class interests. This end Is achieved by keeping in the foreground the necessity for increasing the productive forces of the country in which both classes are equally Interested. The cooperation of the classes was assisted by the fact that they are often brought together in personal association. Many industrial workers possess small plots of land, and many peasants are still obliged to perform temporary wage labor. The cooperation of the two classes is not less rendered easier by the consumers' cooperative societies, which unite town workers and peasants, than by the fact that the priests as well as the nobles have lost all influence over the peasantry. The historical moment, the tradition, which plays such a big part with the conservative peasant, is in Georgia associated with the social democracy, as it was the latter which, from the commencement led the struggle for the peasants' emancipation from the Russian bureaucracy and absolutism, and from native serfdom. Add to this a further motive. A* soon as the peasant emerges from his revolutionary period and becomes the uudirputed owner of his land, he supports the readiest that government which not.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OP
ORoGI
267
only respects his property, but also protects it from devastation through
foreign invasion and civil war. This explains the support given by the French peasants to the victorious Napoleonic Empire, and their hostility to the urban revolutionaries as soon as the latter appeared to be the Instigators of civil war. The Social.-Democatic government of Georgia has not only liberated the peasants from the feudal burdens, but its foreign policy, as we shall presently see, In spite of stupendous difficulties, had till February, 1920, saved the country from foreign invasion. Its Internal policy of democratic tolerance and liberty, which did not, however, signify apathy or weakness, but was coupled with energy and conscious initiative, has averted an internal catastrophe. Within recent years, when rebellions have broken out almost everywhere from the Rhine to the Pacific Ocean, Georgia was the only country, with the exception of German Austria, that has escaped violence. A few attempts at rebellion in outlying districts in the south and the north are hardly worth mentioning. This peace and security have commended the Social-Democratic regime to the peasants. Perhaps in no other country at the present time are the conditions for friendly relations between the peasantry and the proletariat, and for the sympathetic neutrality of the former toward Industrial socialization so favorable as In Georgia. Thus we find that in this period of revolution the government which was most firmly supported at home was the Georgian government. It is true the external situation was of qjilte a different cast.
CHAPTER X. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF THE REPUBLIC
We have seen that the Social-Democratic Party of Georgia, unlike that of Poland, functioned, not as an independent party, but as a part of the social democracy of Russia, as a citadel of Russian Menshevism. But it stood for the self-determination of the Georgian as of every other nationality. To achieve this object, the party did not consider it to be necessary to separate from the Russian state. It would have been quite satisfied If Georgia had become one of the states of an allied republic of the United States of Russia. Not as Georgians, but as Menshevists, It took part In the elections to the constituent assembly In November, 1917. In the interest of the whole of Russia, Tsereteli defended the rights of the assembly on its opening against the'threatened coup d tat of the Bolshevists. He pointed out that the dissolution of the assembly spelt nothing less than the ruin of Industry, eternal civil war, and the disruption of the Empire. His arguments were answered by the Bolshevists by means of the force of Lettish infantry and Cronstadt sailors. This has not prevented the attitude of Tseretell being right In the light of history. The first consequence of the dissolution of the constituent assembly was the disruption of the Empire. The centrifugal tendencies obtained the upper hand In the eastern provinces, In the Ukraine, on the Don, and In Kuban, in Siberia, and in the Caucasus. The defection of Transcaucasia took place, not at once, but gradually. The Transcaucasian deputies, who had been elected to the constituent assembly, were increased in number Immediately after the elections by such unsuccessful candidates as had received the next largest number of votes Previously, the revoluJoining to form a Transcaucasian Parliament. tionary organizations of the district had appointed an executive for its administration, namely, the Transcaucasian Commissariat, which assumed the character of a local government. Both these institutions quickly achieved independence of Russia, not because they repudiated the central power, but because the latter deserted the country and left it to Itself. The retreating masses of the Russian Army opened all roads to the pursuing Turks. If Transcaucasia was not to be overwhelmed by the murderous and destroying Turk, it was obliged to help itself. Its "commissariat" entered into negotiations with the Turks and their German allies for an armistice and peace. It felt that It had been sold and betrayed by the Bolshevist Government, and therefore declined to participate in the peace negotiations of Brest. Litovsk. It believed that It could better serve the interests of the country if It pursued Its own policy, Independent of Russia, and In this has been Justified by the event.
268
NATIONAL DEPUBL
OF GBOIA
- After the capitulation of Russia at Brest-Litovak, the complete separation Of Transcaucasia was a question of only a few weeks. On April 22, 1918, the Transcaucasian Republic declared its independence. . This new combination was to remain in existence only for five weeks. Its constituent parts were too diverse. Georgia represented the leading element but, from the commencement, it had great difiiculy in holding together the other national members of the confederation-the Armenians, who chiefly dwell in Armenia, and the Tartars, who for the most part live in Azerbeljan. The Armenians have no greater enemies than the Turks, and the Kurds who, are related to them, who are chiefly Mobammedans. On the other hand, the people of AzerbeiJan are mostly Mobammedans. They incline toward the Turks, whereas the Armenians are disposed toward any r6gime which shows itself ready to free them from the Turkish danger, whether it be Czarism or the Entente. Now the Georgians demanded complete neutrality, both toward the Turks and Russia, and complete independence of both. For some time the Georgians were able to recommend this policy to the two other great races of Transcaucasa. But the Armenian-Tartar antagonism was too strong. It broke up the Transcaucasian Republic in the exciting days which followed the peace of Brest-LAtovsk. When the Turks presented an ultimatum to Transcaucasia on May 26, 1918, the Parliament dissolved and declared the Republic to be ended. On the same day Georgia proclaimed its independence. Its foreign policy remained the same as it was during the Transcaucasian partnership. In the declaration of independence of May 28, it is stated: The National Council declares-"(1) Henceforth the people of Georgia exercise sovereign rights over themselves. "(2) The political constitution of independent Georgia is that of a democratic republic. "(3) Georgia will maintain an attitude of constant neutrality in any international conflicts that might arise." Hitherto Georgia has adhered steadfastly to this policy, however difficult it has been, in view of the great struggles which have been waged on its borders, and the instant temptation on the part of one or the other of the great military powers to win or compel the allied cooperation of the Republic. The first difficulty arose immediately after the declaration of Independence. The Turkish ultimatum placed Georgia in a desperate position. By itself it was Impotent to resist the Turkish Invasion. To protect itself from this Invasion, it was obliged to choose the lesser of two evils. It opened the door to the German occupation, under the agreement reached in Poti, on the 28th May, between von Lossow and Tchenkeli.' The German troops came to Tiflis as protectors from the Turks, and were, therefore, cordially welcomed. The country was important to the Germans, as a highway to the petroleum wealth of Baku, and to Persia. They came to Georgia not as plunderers but as organizers of its productive forces, as they needed the Georgian products, especially manganese, and also its railways. Thus they brought to Georgia precisely what was most lacking in the country, and what it could only obtain speedily by foreign assistance, namely economic organization. The Germans have been popular in Georgia for a long time, thanks to the Wurtemberg colonists who settled there a hundred years ago, as peasants, and retained" their nationality until to-day, earning for themselves a good reputation. The German occupation was further raised by the achievement of troops in occupation. Georgia is one of the few countries in this war where the German Armies have done propaganda work for Germany. Nevertheless, the Georgian Government decisively rejected the overtures of the Germans to enter into an alliance with them against Soviet Russia or the Entente. "The Germans did not succeed in persuading Georgia to form an alliance with the Central .Powers. The attempts of German diplomacy to involve Georgia in the Russian civil war were equally unsuccessful. "When In the autumn of 1918 a group of Russian reactionaries attempted to form an ' Astrakhan Army,' the German command proposed to the Georgian 'Memoirs on the relation between the Transcaeasian and Georgian Republic and TUrkey and Germany. p. 21.
NATIONAL REPUBI&O OF
ORGoIA
269
,Government to permit the enrollment of volunteers for this army in its terfl. tory. "The Government of the Republic answered with a categorical refusal."' The policy of Georgia underwent no change when, after the collapse of the German Army and its Allies, the Entente invaded Transcaucasia. Now it was the Entente which sought to entangle Georgia in the Russian civil war, and to draw It into an alliance with Denikin against the Bolshevist. These overtures, too, were definitely rejected by the Georgian Government, which continued to maintain the strictest neutrality. That was not easy, as the conflicting -classes in Russia adopted the attitude of who is not for us is against us. The democratic country, which had expropriated the ground landlords, was a thorn in the side of the generals of the counter revolution. The Republic seemed to be not less Inconvenient to the men of the Soviet Republic, if for other reasons. They hated Georgian Menshevism right heartily. Both the dictators, who aimed at restoring Czardom, and the people's commissaries could not bear to think that within their orbit was a free a.d independent community, which would not obey the dictates of Moscow. A great part of the fighting between the Bolshevists and the white troops took place on the northern borders of Georgia. Sometimes the one and sometimes the other side, whichever happened to be victorious, attempted to subdue the free mountain peoples of the Caucasus, and occasionally Invaded Georgia, in order either to set up the reaction, or to provoke a communist rebellion ,which would lead to submission to the Moscow rglme. At first it was the Bolshevists who, without any declaration of war, invaded the coast line of Georgia in the autumn of 1918 and captured Sukhum. The Georgian forces pressed them back. The Bolshevists were soon followed by Denikin's forces, who seized the territory which had been wrested from Georgia by the former. Georgia endeavored to negotiate, but Denikin was not disIposed to do so. He advanced, but was at length thrown back, like the Bolshevists. The intervention of the English succeeded in restoring peace. In the following year the white troops tried to subdue the mountain peoples in the northern Caucasus, who had won their independence. Georgia remained neutral, but Its sympathies lay with those who had been attacked .and were struggling for their freedom. It protested repeatedly against the violence of the counter revolutionaries, and numerous Georgian volunteers fought in the ranks of the Caucasians. A rapproachment between the Soviet Republic and Georgia began to take place at the commencement of 1920. The people's commissaries proposed to the -Georgian Republic an alliance for common action against the white volunteer army. This alliance was refused, albeit the Georgian Government considered that any foreign intervention in Russia and any participation of a foreign power in the Russian civil war to be wrong and disastrous. The Government of the Georgian Republic remained true to this attitude, and, whenever an opportunity arose, opposition was offered to foreign Intervention. - Although an alliance for military purposes was refused, a friendly approaea to Russia was welcomed. Eventually a definite treaty of peace was made with Soviet Russia (May 7, 1920) whereby both powers mutually recognized each other, and promised to li'-e in peace and harmony. Georgia has faithfully observed this peace, but not so the Soviet Republic. Scarcely had the latter concluded peace than its troops invaded Georgia from the side of Azerbaijan, which Soviet Russia had seized shortly before by a coup d'etat. Once more the Georgians succeeded in throwing back the invading enemy, and again offered peace as soon as the beaten foe was ready for it. .Scarcely had peaceful copdtons been reestablished than Bolshevists organized new military invasions from the north, in order to provoke insurrections in northern Georgia. Almost at the same tim6 (July) a communist conspiracy was discovered in Abkhasla, having relations with the Russian military com,mand, and Implicating two officials belonging to the Russian mission in Tiflis. But all these deceits and treacheries had attained no success Worthy of mention till February of 1921. This fact demonstrated the firmness as well as the circumspection and energy of the Georgian Government. It also showed the shamelessness of the communists, who were never tired of waxing indignant -over the terrorism in Georgia, because a few communist conspirators had some-
$ Woytinsky
Una vera dewocrasza.
NATIONAL E
0PUSUC OF 0101A.
ivues been arrested and condemned to Imprisonment, or veme communist newspaper which spread false news had been suspended for a few days. In the few months pilot to February of this year a new storm broke over the small but undaunted Republic. At the end of September, 1920, the Turkish natlonalists invaded Armenia. Soon Russian troops from Azerbaijan proceeded to Armenia, In order to seize the country and ttansform It Into a vassal of Russia. Both In Armenia and Azerbaijan Russian troops assembled In a threatening guise, on the borders of Georgia. This fact compelled the latter to mobilize also. The language of the Russian representative In Tiflls became increasingly threatening. In the middle of December, a conspiracy was discovered in Tilflis, the object of which was to provoke street fighting In that town, which would furnish a pretext for the invasion of Georgia by the Russian troops watching on the border, 60 kilometers from Tflis. Among the conspirators, officials of the Russian embassy were again discovered. This would have Justified the Georgian Government in giving Herr Schelmann, the Russian ambassador in Tifs, his passports, but it contented itself with asdng Lenin to recall Scheimann and replace him by another person, because his activities disturbed the good relations between the two .4tates. But Scheimann remained. Thus at the beginning of January the situation of the small republic had become very troubled. The Bolshevist Invasion which threatened In the spring if the Moscow dictators had not themselves been checked, has now come sooner than was expected. The fate of Georgia only depended on the strength of her arms.
CnArm XI. Tuni
AamED
Foacts OF GROOTA
The Social-Democrats of Georgia are pacifists in the sense that they abhor war, and avoid It as much as possible, but not in the sense that they refuse to meet force with force, and deliver themselves unarmed into the hands of their opponents, merely seeking to influence them by words. Where it Is threatened by force, Democracy also requires to defend itself by force. Thus, when the Social-Democracy of Georgia became a power, it was obliged to provide itself with weapons. In the revolution of 1905, the Georgian Social-Democrats urged the arming of the proletariat, but events taught them greater wisdom. The possession of arms by the proletariat causes some of them to have the feelings of bandits, and leads them to individual acts of violence and crime. The question once again became acute in the revolution of 1917. When the delirious Joy which marked the beginning was followed by A soberness, many comrades, even in Georgia, discussed the question of how the revolution could be defended against a threatened armed attack from the counter revolution. It thus appeared to be necessary to arm the working class, but not all workers without distinction. Only tried and disciplined comrades should receive arms. The workers' guard was founded on the 6th of September, 1917. At the beginning it was of slight account, as it lacked arms. In December the necessity and likewise the possibility, of arming a larger body of men arose out of a conflict between the workers of Tiflls and the soldiers' council there. In Tiflls, like everywhere else In Russia, a workers' council had been formed, and Noe Jordanla, afterwards President of the Republic, chosen as president. The whole power in Tiflls devolved on the workerS' council, when, after the Bolshevist coup d'dtat, the Russian armies dissolved, and came swarming over the Turkish border. Georgia, whose language they did not understand, appeared to the Russian soldiers as a foreign country. Naturally inclined to plunder, a. Is every army whose discipline has disappeared, they were all the more eager for plunder in a district where they felt they were foreigners. Moreover, as the soldiers were dominated by the spirit of Bolshevism, which at that time meant the complete surrender of the country to the hostile armies, they were not favorably disposed toward the Georgian Menshevists, who did not consider the senseless retreat from the by no means victorious Turks to be necessary, however much they were convinced of the need for an immedite armistice and peace. As a matter of fact, the Menshevist Transcaucasian commissariat succeeded in concluding an armistice with the Turks on the 18th of December.
NATIONAL RBE UEC OF GEORGIA
271
At the beginAing of December the disorganized masses of returning soldiers threatened the security of the population of Tiflis to the utmost. In order to protect the population, the Tflls Workers' Council demanded arms for the workers' guard. These arms could be obtained only from the arsenal, which was In the hands of the returned soldiers. The Menshevist Workers' Council requested of the Bolshevist Soldiers' Council the delivery of weapons for arming tte workers' guard. This the soldiers' council refused. Thereupon the workers' council decided to help themselves and to capture the arsenal. It was a hazardous enterprise. Only 225 armed men were at Its disposal, whereas the Tiflis garrison numbered 20,000 men. Nevertheless, the stroke was succesful. In the ea:iy morning of the 12th of December they attacked the arsenal and captured it after a short struggle, in which only one soldier fell. This success revealed the great war weariness, apathy, and demoralization which had overtaken the Russian Army, as well as the fearless and defensive capacity of the Georgian proletariat. We have already noted that all stations of the population of Georgia are characterized by the economic carelessness and love of enjoyment which is a heritage of feudalism. To this heritage must also be added a striking valor in the best sense of the word. After the 26th of May the date of the Declaration of Independence, the 12th of December is celebrated in Georgia as a national holiday. On that day the Georcian Social-Democracy captured the arms to defend itself against subsequent attacks. The workers' guards now disposed of sufficient arms and were able to organise themselves in battalions. Their name varied; first they called themselves the revolutionary miltia, then the red guard, and finally the people's guard. From Tiflls they spread themselves over the whole of Georgia. They constituted a volunteer army of tried Socialists, and numbered about 30,000 men. Only a part of them were armed in time of peace, the majority being on furlough, and following thefr callings. If the Republic had been In danger, they would have been called up by the general itaff, supplied with arms, and allotted to their places. The constitution of the guard was democratic. Its affairs were decided by congresses, to which every 200 men sent a delegate. The guard belonging to a district selected Its officers. 'Likewise, the general staff is chosen for one year. Its supreme commander was Valike Jugell, who was the leader in the bold stroke of the 12th of December, 1917. The guard was not under the control of the war minister, but of the President of the Republic. The military training of the guard was zealously fostered, but the troops did not develop a military spirit. The people's guards in the barracks remained the same Social-Democratic proletarians as they were outside it, and their Interest was occupied, not by military, but by social questions. The general staff has formed two sections; one for education and one for agriculture. The former takes care of the continued education of the guards, the Increase both of their civil knowledge and of their technical capabilities. The other section pursues agricultural activities upon sowe large estates which are put at its disposal. The Austrian popular militia also contains an educational section, but the agricultural section is a special feature of the Georgian Guard. This undertaking is not to be confused with Russian compulsory labor. The Georgian organization signifies the civilizing of militarism, but the Russian organization is the militarizing of civil work. In the people's guard, the workers who would prefer to be outsde the army, are not subjected to military discipline, which would compel them to undertake specific work; but soldiers who would otherwise stay in barracks without occupation are provided with the opportunity of breaking the monotony of an unproductive existence by useful and various activities. Only experience can show whether the guards can do more productive work on these large estates than as private workers, but even if this should not be the case, they will certainly be able to reduce the cost of their maintenance. The large estates cove a part of the requirements of the guards. We have here a very interesting experiment, the extension of which deserves serious consideration. Its maintenance and successful accomplishment in Europe might lend a more reasonable and tolerable aspect to the enormous European armies. It is not a specially socialistic measure; it could be accepted by any middle-class government, but if this were done, what would become of the
NATIONAL RNPUBLIC 07 GEORGIA military contractors? How many European officer corps would not find employment in useful work below their dignity? It is not a Socialistic measure to set to work upon State land soldiers who are undergoing their period of training, but It might be of Importance for the development of Socialism as a starting point for the establishment of one form of Socialist agriculture. In spite of their pronounced peaceable disposition and employment, the people's guard have shown their readiness for fight on every occasion that has arisen. Unfortunately such occasions have not lacked, as we have seen. Voluntary armies alone can not permanently suffice for the Socialist Republic. The spirit of democracy required participation in military service of all capable of bearing arms, which was equally reinforced by the necessity for securing the Republic against Its mighty external enemies. Thus by the side of the people's guard arose" the army of general military service. Its definite shape represents a militia similar to the Swiss militia, and is under the control of the war minister. In the event of war, the regular army and the volunteer army are united under the same supreme command. In the general conscript army the war ministrZ zealously foster educational activities, and the democratic principle has been widely applied for the first time among these troops. Yet In this case the officers are not chosen by the soldiers, but are appointed by the war ministry.- The majority of the officers are Social-Democrats. As regards the military feeling of the troops and the nations of the separate sections of the army, a reasoned Judgment can not be passed by a layman, especially one who Is not familiar with the language and has not had the opportunity for a lengthy observation I was assured on various sides that no jealously existed between the guard and the regular army. One thing Is certain, that until February the whole army had been entirely successful in Its compaigus; the entire army was feeling a great enthusiasm for the independence of the fatherland. It suffered severely from the lack of arms and munitions.
CHAPTER XII. THE BOLSHEVxST INVASION
In the first period of Independent Georgia, its forces had been put to many hard tests. But its severest trial came last spring, as the result of the Bolshevist invasion by the strong Russian forces, simultaneously from the south, from the north, and from the east. This treacherous Invasion occurred without any declaration of war in the first half of February. The world first heard of it from the Georgian side. The Social-Democratic Party and the trade unions, as well as the Federal Socialist Party, announced positively, together with the Georgian Government, that Georgia had been invaded by Russian troops, and was threatened to the utmost, They expected an immediate and vigorous protest against the proceedings of Moscow would be forthcoming from the International Socialist Congress at Vienna. Unfortunately the telegram arrived late, and, in addition, the Congress was suffering under the Infldence of the formidable crisis Into which continental Europe had been plunged by the senseless demands made on Germany by the entente. Thus the general Interest was occupied by western rather than eastern politics. Above all, the representations which came from Moscow, and which decisively denied any invasion of Georgia by the Russian Army, served to confuse the judgment. It Is not necessary to subject thiese representations to a detailed examination, as they answer themselves by their contradictions and Inconsistencies. In order to be able to deny the invasion of Russian troops, It was first stated that some villages on the Georgian frontier had revolted, embittered by the tyr-,nny of the Georgians. Some Armenians on the southern border had given the signal, and then the rebellion spread to Slnakh, which lies in the east of Georgia, towards Azebaijan. Simultaneously, Abkhasla had risen In the extreme northwest, close to the Russian border.It Is a remarkable fact that the rebellions broke out precisely In those places, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Abkhasla where large and constantly increasing masses of Russian troops had been quartered since November. The inhabitants of some Armenian border villages are supposed to have Insisted on advancing toward Tiflis. The Russian Government stated It had
273
endeavored, out of love of peace and benevolence, to help the threatened Georgian rgilme, and offered its mediation between the Georgians and the Armenians. It could not help it if Georgia contemptuously rejected this mediation. But scarcely was Tflis captured than the picture immediately changed. The Armenians had discharged their debt, the Armenians could so. No further mention was made In the Russian telegrams of Armenian rebellions, but now It suddenly appears that communists had captured Tiflis and overthrown the Menshevists. "Pravda" (in Moscow) congratulates the Georgian comrades, and says that "Menshevist Georgia has become the last refuge for the counter-revolution." No further references to the Armenian rebellions or to the peace mediations. Can any reasonable man hold it to be possible that Moscow would have offered its helpful mediation -to the Menshevist Government which was threatened by Communists? The later Russian telegrams about events in Georgia brand the first news as lies. They more closely approach the truth, but do not quite touch It. They admit that Tflis was captured by communists, and not by revolting Armenians. But they would have us believe that It was Georgian workers and peasants who rose against their own Government and captured Tiflis. One Moscow telegram stated: "The Georgian Revolutionary Committee onrnounce the seizing of Tiflis by the revolutionary Georgian workers and peasants." Thus the same Georgian communists, *who up to January could only secure an Insignificant representation in any worker's or "peasant" organization of Georgia, under conditions of the fullest liberty of legal activity, had suddenly gained sufmcient strength In February to overthrow the Georgian Government. This is sufficiently remarkable, but more remarkable Is the following: A rebellion of revolutionary workers usually first breaks out in an industrial center, and thence spreads over the remainder of the country. The communist revolt of the "revolutionary workers of Georgia" did not break out in T11s, which comprises half of the industrial workers of Georgia, but, as the Russian report Itself establishes, in remote villages, inhabited by a backward agrarian population. In such villages there were, Indeed, numerous communists, well armed, and led by those who cherished Implacable hatred of any Menshevist organization. They were the Russian armies, and only they were In a position to lend the "Georgian Revolutionary Committee" the strength to advance successfully against Tlls, and to seize the town. If, in spite of all, the Russian Government still attempts to create the belief that its three strong armies on the southern, eastern, and northwestern boundaries of Georgia refrained from any share in the fight between the communist, and Menshevist Georgia, this Is obviously because invasion by the Russisn armies would represent the most Impudent and shameless mockery of the princlples most sacred to every Socialist, which principles even the most hardened Bolshevists still had doubts about throwing on the scrap heap. Yet stronger than such doubts Is the hatretl which the Moscow dictators cherlh against everything which Is called Menshevist or Social-Democratic. They consider this Is to be synonymous with counter-revolution, but In reality they hate It far more than the actual counter-revolution. They enter Into negotiations with capitalist England and America, but they have sworn mortal enmity to every proletarian organization which accepts the principle that the emancipation of the working class must be the task of the workers themselves, and that it can not be Introduced by the Involuntary submission of the workers to the commands of Moscow. The men of the Moscow International endeavor, with the aid of every kind of lie and every species of corruption, to split all Mensherist and Social-Democratic organizations. And shall they tolerate right on their borders the SocialDemocratic Republic of Georgia, this "last refuge" of Menshevlsm, as Pravda said, within the Russian sphere of power? Georgia was Menshevist. Therefore, Its death sentence was pronounced in Moscow. CHAPTW XIII. Tan Moscow BovAPa
SM
The Menshevism of Georgia is the most Important, but not the ouly cause of the Bolshevist Invasion. The world policy of Moscow forms another reason. As Czardom did formerly, so now Bolshevism, although from quite different standpoints, regards England as the greatest and most dangerous enemy of
274
Russia. And this great empire moms by its geographical position alone among all the powers of the world to control the road on which Erlgand can be dealt a blow, and brought to her knee, without the mastery of the eas, namely, the road to India. Soviet Russia is now playing with the grandiose idea of Napoleon the First, to attack England in India. Napoleon came to grief by the first step which he took, as he could not stand up against the Engis* at sea. Without the victory of the English at sea, his failure to penetrate Into the Interior of Asia would have been much more Inglorious, 4w It would have by mere Insufficiency of the means of transport prepared for him a Moscow at the very beginning of his military career. Soviet Russia does not need to repeat the first step of Napoleon. It can commence with the seud. The has lost none of its dilficulties, as a far larger army Is necessary for the conquest of India to-day than was the came at the end of the eighteenth century. The Russians can hardly get very far without great railway construction. Such works are out of the question In the present condition of Russian Industry. However, the plan is bold, and In boldness the Bolshevists equal Danton and the first Napoleon. In this quality, and not In their positive achievements, rests the great power of attraction which they exercise over so many persons who live far from their Jurisdiction. One of the stages of the road to India Is Persia, Into which the Bolshevists have already penetrated, although unsuccessfully, last year. At that time, their basis was too narrow. It would be considerably broadened by the possession of Georgia. Thus Moscow world policy required this country for further military progress. As chance had it, Rosta at the same time as it announced its account of the Georgian conflict had the following dispatch from Moscow: "On Fo'brnary 28 an agreement was signed In Moscow between Russia and Afghanistan." The conquest of Georgia Is a part of Russia's eastern policy directed against England. The likeness to the policy of Napoleon Is a close one and has already been pointed out. But the resemblance Is more than a miere chance. We are struck more and more with the manner In which the ,-ourse of the great French Revolution has been repeated in that of Russia, although the international situation and ideology are of quite a different order to-day than at the end of the eighteenth century. Montesquleu, Voltaire, and J. J. Rousseau are scarcely read to-day; Marx dominates the hour, and present-day Russia is not, like the France of 100 years ago, the most highly developed, but the most backward of the countries of the European Continent. But the principal tasks, agrarian reform and the overcoming of absolutism, corresponded In Russia In 1917 so closely with those of France In 1789 that since that date the revolution here has followed the same stages as there, only In Russia with younger and simpler social sections in considerably grosser forms. Here, as there, we find first of all a middle-class revolution. In France It developed into the reign of terror of the Jacobins, who were supported by the lower classes, especially in the capital. In Russia the reign cf terror of the Bolshevists, who proclaim the dictatorship of the proletariat. In order to maintain themselves the Jacobins found themselves obliged to substitute for the bureaucracy the police and the 'army of the old regime, which bad been abolished by the revolution, a nei police and army, much stronger and more centralized than the old, and therefore established that machinery of domination which was to lead to the empire of Napoleon. The Bolshevists have found themselves obliged to pursue the same course. Gradually they have more and more restricted the self-government of the working class In the domain both of economics and politics, created an allpowerful police apparatus, proclaimed the dictatorship of the factory chiefs, reduced the soviets to a shadow, and instead have built up a great, strictly disciplined army, to which all that remains of Russian industry Is subservient. Thus Soviet Russia bas entered upon a phase of the revolution which corresponds with the third phase of the French Revoll ion, viz, the phase of absolutism and the domination of the police and military forces. We may class this the Bonapartist phase. The victorious general i , Indeed, lacking. Meanwhile Russia Is In the stage of the consulate e of the two consuls, Lenin and Trotsky.
275
Like the Moscow Bonapartism, its French predecessor derived from the revolution tie allurements of which It retained, whereby so many eathuuiasts have been deceived. It is notorious that the fiery republican, Beethoven, was In 1804 an enthuastise worshipper of Napoleon, immediately before the latter made himself emperor. Napoleon passed as the Incarnation of the revolution only because the reactionary powers hated him as much as the revolution itself, although the Napoleonic empire already possessed a character which distinguished it fundamentally from the revolution. The present-day Moscow regime has as little In common with the proletarian dominance of the State as the French Empire at the beginning of the last century had with the Republic. The so-called Soviet Republic of to-day does not rest upon the power of the proletariat, but on the strength of Its army and on the impotence of the proletariat against this army. As the strength of the army grows so the power of the rulers of the State increases, but simultaneously grows their dependence on the only element on which they are able to support themselves, the military. Accordingly a new militarism Is arising In Russia and likewise a new imperialism. For the latter the Impulse toward constant extension of power and fields of exploitation Is peculiar to militarism as well as to capitalism. The need for employing his army and constantly providing fresh booty and advantages drove Napoleon to that restless policy of conquest which finally collapsed at Moscow. The same conditions are to-day creating in Russia similar efforts on the part of the Moscow imperialism. To this policy Georgia has now been sacrificed. It is important to make this quite clear. The effect upon us would be disastrous If it were a genuinely proletarian Republic which had suddenly invaded another proletarian Republic, a small, friendly, and peaceful community. To Invade it without any declaration of war, in the midst of peace, was indeed an infamy more wicked than the German invasion of Belgium In 1014. For then Germany was engaged in a war for its existence, and the invasion was an episode of the World War. The Bolshevist Invasion threatens to paralyze the whole of the Socialist propaganda against the war and to brand it as humbug. Never before have wars wrought such destruction as to-day of technical appliances for the needs of production and of communication, and never before was peace so essential to the prosperity of the peoples. It brings consolation, encouragement and hope to large sections of people when we Socialists point out that it is capitalism alone that renders war inevitable, and that the proletariat is the force that will bring peace and maintain it. The world rule of the proletariat would be synonymous with lasting world peace! And now we have two Republics, governed by the proletariat, existiIng side by side, and one makes war upon the other with a treachery that Is seldom met with among capitalist governments. Were Russia still a proletarian republic, the events In Georgia would Inflict a serious blow on the whole of our propaganda, in which we describe the proletariat as the firmest support of peace. Yet, in reality, the Russian proletariat has borne no share In the Invasion of Georgia, because It has ceased to exercise political power in Russia. We are justified in continuing to assert that the general rule of the proletariat will secure lasting world peace; that between two states, equally governed by the proletariat, no occasion for war will any longer arise; and that the international solidarity of the workers will be strong enough to settle peacefully any possible conflicts between two proletarian states. For the Russia which has just made this execrable invasion into Georgia is no longer a proletarian, but a Bonapartist community. Far from rejoicing over the conquest of Georgia. the proletariat of Russia vigorously condemned it, as was shown by the protest Issued in Berlin on March 3 by the foreign agency of the Social-Democratic Labor Party (signed by Abramovitch and Martoff). In Russia itself the proletariat is Jnuzzled, and can not express itself freely, but the Social-Democratic Party, that is. the Menshevists, Is competent to speak In Its name. Times have changed since Bolshevism forced Menshevism into the background and won to Its side the mass of the workers in the large towns. This was the case in the autumn of 1017, when the craving for peace outweighed every other consideration among the masses, and the Bolshevists gave to it the most powerful and unequivocal expression.
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GEOROIA Since that time the domination of Bolshevism has become synonymous with constant war, with hunger and poverty, and also with the complete suspension of every kind of liberty of movement for the proletariat. Peace and freedom are to-day most stoutly championed by the Menshevists; the mass of the Russian proletariat turns more and more toward them; and the Bolshevists attempt in vain, by all means of electoral shuffling, corruption. Intimidation, bloody terror, to dam the rising tide of opposition. The Invasion of Georgia has been undertaken, not with the concurrence, but against the wishes of the Russian proletariat. The latter i free from the latest Moscow blood guilt. We are entitled to expect that the entire international proletariat, so far as it does not obey the behests of Moscow, will unanimously endorse the protest of our Russian comrades. The fear Is groundless that such a protest will strengthen French and English imperialism, which is hostile to Soviet Russia. Quite the contrary. We blunt the points of our weapons in the struggle against the imperialism of the capitalist powers, if we are afraid to denounce imperialism when. it arises out of a proletarian revolution, and discredits the latter. It is our business to remove the Influence of imperialist ways of thinking from the proletariat. How can we do this if we tolerate an imperialism which masquerades in the name of the proletariat? Yet another factor renders It necessary for the Social-Democratic parties of the world to make a decisive stand against the Moscow Bonapartism. The close parallel, which exists between the course which the Russian revolution has hitherto followed and that of the great French Revolution must not blind us to the differences between the two events In the eighteenth century France was the most progressive state of the European continent. To-day Russia Is still the most backward amongst the great states of Europe. Although the French Bonapartism constituted a strong reaction from the Republic, Its policy of expansion brought many improvements to the rest of Europe. The present Moscow Bonapartism Is not only reactionary in relation to the proletarian revolution of Russia, out of which it arose, but even more so In comparison with the proletarian movements of the rest of Europe, which It seeks to fetter. A further distinction exists between the old Bonapartism of Paris and the new one of Moscow. No class-conscious proletariat existed at the time of the great French revolution. The proletarian section3 formed a tail to the small middle class, an extremely divided and unreliable class, which constantly swayed between obstinate resistance and cowardly submission, between anticapitalist discontent and capitalist covetousness. At the time of the revolution this class was without the slightest political experience. However wild Its conduct had been during the reign of terror, It was an easy matter for the empire to paralyze this class. The empire was confronted with no other serious opponents than the old legitimate foreign dynasties, which could not forget the revolutionary origin of the new emperor, For continental Europe at that time there were two alternatives, either bonapartisan or the holy alliance. To-day we are far removed from this. The revolutionary struggle Is conducted not by the small middle class, but by the proletariat, a class which, In contract to the former is of a homogeneous character and pursues a single object. It will not make terms with capitalism, and much less will it permit any restrictions on its liberty of movement. The workers are not always conscious of the Socialist objective of their class struggle. as was shown fit the case of the English workers for wore than a generation after the disappearance of Chartism, but in all countries, and under all circumstances, they zealously guard their freedom of movement. At times they may be suppressed and forcibly held down, but this policy becomes more difficult as they grow in numbers, as their political and organizing experience extends, and as they become more indispensable in an economic sense. For decades the proletariat has waged the class struggle in an open and organized manner. Under these circumstances the new Russian Bonapartism is faced with quite a different situation from that of the oI'J French Bonapartism. The world is no longer confronted with the choice of two alternatives, submission to the dictation of the new absolutism, born of the revolution and the reaction;
277
ening of proletarian freedom, which is best represented by the growing power of Socialist opposition. The victory of the Alliance over Napoleon signified the triumph of reactioD and the defeat of the peoples of Europe for a generation. But this victory was rendered unavoidable by the excesses which are necessarily bound up with Bonapartism. The victory of the capitalism of the Entente over Soviet Russia would likewise signify the victory of reaction and facilitate the defeat of the European proletariat even if not for so long as a generation nor to the same degree as before. In any event, the proletarian class struggle would be considerably hampered. Consequently, the workers of all countries, whatever their opinions of the Bolshevist methods, have resisted the efforts of the Entente to crush Soviet Russia. But this does not imply that the Russian Bonapartism should be defended against all criticism, especially against that which proceeds from the Menshevists. This is called the defense of the Russian revolution, but is merely a defrmse of the exploiters of this revolution against the Social-Democratic opposition, which would be best able to maintain and extend the revolutionary achievements. Not Boshevism, but this opposition, is now the real support of the Russian revolution. Its fate depends upon the victory of this opposition and its speedy victory. Russia is a peasant State and will remain so far a long time. Russia's political future rests upon this fact, whichever class or party may succeed In gaining the leadership of the peasants, who are not fitted to pursue an Independent class policy. Hitherto the Russian peasantry has followed the proletarian leadership. The practice of the Bolshevists tends more and more to alienate the peasants and to make them disposed to accept a capitalist or any other kind of counterrevolutionary leadership. It is not alone the victory of one of the counter-revolutionary generals which threatens to make Russia once more the citadel of reaction, but also the transference of the allegiance of the peasants to the other side. This would be detrimental to the class struggle in Europe as well as in Russia. The defection of the peasants who have hitherto been revolutionary and led by the proletariat can only be arrested by the substitution of the Menshevist methods, so successfully practiced in Georgia, for the existing Bolshevist methods. Thus the most urgent need of the hour and the best means of saving the jeopardized revolution is the overcoming of Bolshevism by Menshevism. It is the duty of the Social-Democrats of all countries to assist Menshevism to the utmost extent of their power. This Is the same thing as working for the triumph of the methods of little Georgia. It still lies crushed and mishandled by its overwhelming 'opponent, but simultaneously the Ideas which Inspired It and made it capable of great things are sweeping over the giant empire of its oppressor. Russia will only be able to prosper when It Is animated by the spirit that inspired Georgia. This will constitute the revenge of the Social.Democratic Republic of the Caucasus.
that Is, between Moscow and the Entente. A third possibility exists-the overthrow of the Moscow Bonapartism from within by means of the strength-
APPENDIX No, 12
ALUACI BETwMN Tits ltlwunxlcs ofw Auiz-xA, AZUIAIAIDJAM, CASA, AND (lOWIJA, JuNIC 10, l9? Noatn CAU-
The undersigned, representative of the Wtemblks of Armeia, Awrbitidjan, Northern Caucasus, and Georgia, animated by the desire to assure the peoples of Caucasus the benefits of independence, of democratic rule and economic prosperity, and anxious to eliminate all causes for differences between these Republics and to found their close solidarity on a firm basis, declare as follows: First. The foresald representatives recognize unanimously that Caucasus, lthmu, with dlistiwtly fixed limits between lurope and Asia, Is because of Its geographical situation, the great international road connecting tie Black and Mediterranean Seas with the countries of central Asia and interior Asia,
and that the freedom of this road, to the interest of all the
be assured on the conditions of the complete independence of the Caucasian Republics and of the establiahment of an alliance among them. Second. The representative, of the aforestild Itepublics are unaninous In recognlsing eqtully that in order to consolidate the independence of ti abovementioned Republics anti to place Caucasus in a position to serve as connection between the Occident and the Orient as well is between the Christian and Mohometan world. It is Indispensable that an intimate awl fraternal union be established among all its peoples. Third. Wishing to remove all the causes for conflicts which have unfortunately arisen in the past among the Caucasian peoples, and in order to accomplish as soon as possible the solidarity and friendship among these peoples uWted by secular basis of neighborhood and by their common historic destinies, the Caucasian Republics decide to henceforth resolve, by means of compulsory arbitration, all strifes or differences now existing or arising among them in the future, and especially litigations concerning frontiers. Fourth. Considering that in order to attain the objects aimed at in the preseat declaration a complete concordance of purpose and unity of orientation are Indispensable in the domain of their foreign policies, the Caucasian Republics will abstain from any ewgagement, act, or understanding of International character capable of causing detriment to the alliance in general or to one of its members; and they will contribute. in matters of foreign policies, to the unity and coordintion of action of the different Caucasian 8tates united by the treaty of alliance. Fifth. Considering the independence of each of the peoles of Caucasus as lntimttely united to the Itependence of the other Catcasian peoples, the aforesaid Republies, with reference to the defense of each of them and of all together against foreign aggresslons, conclude a defensive military alliance. Sixth. In view of the common economic interests of all the people of Caucasus, a community of which they are all deeply conscious, and in order to strengthen the political solidarity of these peoples, the undersigned declare that the customhouse boundaries as well as all other obstacles to free circulation among the territories of the different Caucasian Republics are abolished and that the aforesaid Republics will henceforth form a custom union and a single territory for transit for International commerce. Seventh. In establishing the relations of allhince on the principals Indicated above, the Caucasian Republics are animate by a sincere desire to establish, on the basis of their complete Indeltwndence and the inviolability of their territories, relations of friendship, nd of neighborly feeling with the neighboring States, namely, Russia, Turkey, and Persia. At the same time, the representatives of the Republics of Armenia, Azei-baidjan, Northern Caucasus, and Georgia declare that these republics are prepared to give, at the time of the regulation of their relations with Russia, impartial (just) satisfaction to the economic Interests which the latter may have In Caucasus. The interests of Persia with respect to the trade of Europe, will also be safeguarded. On the 278
eoliles, can only
279
other hand, attaching no less importance to the establishment of relations of friendship and of good neighborly feeling with Turkey. The Caucasian Republics will try to consolidate by their common efforts these relations on the basis of the observation and respect shown by Turkey for the inviolability of the territories of Caucasus in its boundaries of 1914. Considering also that thli nonsolution, up to the present time, of the Armenian question in Turkey has constituted one of the principal obstacles to the establishment of a union of the Caucasian States, to the great detriment of their evident interests, the rep. resentatives of these States find that a prompt and Just territorial dellmination of Turkey and Armenia conforming to their mutual interests, in the boundaries of Turkey, will be one of the pledges of peace and of calm In the Near East and that the solidarity and visibility of the Caucasian Republics, and of their union, will depend in a large measure on this regulation, to the termination of which the Caucasian State will contribute by their common efforts. Eighth. Believing that the moral and political cooperation of the powers is assured for the cause of the independence of the Caucasian Republics, already recognized by several international acts, the Governments of the aforesaid republics will endeavor to strengthen by their common efforts their political, commercial, and industrial relations with foreign Stttes and to establish con. ditions suitable for facilitating the cooperation of foreign capital, for the development of the natural riches of Caucasus. Ninth. The representatives of the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaldjan, north. ern Caucasus, and Georgia firmly convinced of the necessity for the union of the independent Republics of Caucasus, for the maintenance of order and peace in the Near East, declare that it will not be possible to attain the alms held in view by their respective States unless the neighboring powers respect the political independence as well as the territorial integrity of the aforesaid Republics; they declare in addition that the occupation In 1919, 1920, 1021 by tho armed forces of Russia and Turkey of the territories of these Republics constitutes a flagrant violation of their rights and is a source of future disturbance and that all means of diplomatic action should be employed in order to put an end to this illegal occupation and reestablish order as soon as possible. Tenth. The representative of the Caucasian Republics declare that all the treaties and arrangements concerning the cessions of territories and imposed on the Caucasian States by the neighboring powers, as well as all privileges or concessions granted to anyone in Armenia, Azerbaidjan, northern Caucasus, an) Georgia, by authorities, groups, or organizations which have not Issued from the freely expressed will of the peoples of these Republics, are deproved of all legal value and will be considered as null and void. Executed at Paris, June 10, 1921, In four copies.
A.
AHABONIAN,
President of the Delegation from the Republio of Armenia.

A. M. TOPTaUIBACHOFM,
President of the Delegation of the Republio of Aeerbiadjam. A. M. Tonmmowrn President of the Delegation of the Repubtia of Northern Caucasus. A. J. TCHNKE,, ExtraordinaryEwvoy and Plenipotentiary Minletcr of the Republio of Georgia. Duplicate copy to first secretary of the Legation of Georgia.
APPENDIX No. 13
THE CAUCASIAN MRVDULICS
By Vasill D. Dumbadze, General Diplomatic and Economic Representative of the Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
IN BEAUTIFUL CAUOASIA
NOE JORDANIA President of the National Government of Georgia. The scholarly President of the Georgian Republic is typical of the patriotic men of Caucasia who preserved the ideals of nationalism. His brilliant .articles in the Georgian newspapers heartened the adherents of democracy and inspired the youth of the nation. Twice imprisoned for his liberal views, his name and fame as a leader spread throughout Europe. Mr. Jordania was of noble parentage, born at Lantschchuty, in western Georgia, January 2, 1809. He was educated for the clergy in Tifli, afterwards attending the medical college in Warsaw. As the editor of a newspaper in 'TiViis, he entered upon his career as an exponent of social democracy and the economic development of his country, being elected to the First Russian Duma in 1905. He was active in the rebirth of the hatidn and led his party in 1917 as president of the original central committee of Trans. caucasla. He was elected President of Georgia, in 1918, and transferred the Government to Paris, upon the invasion of the Bolsheviks in 1921, refu sing to compromise with the soviets, who urged him to return to Georgia. "I can not consent to government by assassination," he said in a booklet, "My Answer," "and will not return until my country is freed from Bolshevism."
FOREWORD
There have been written many versions of what has happened in the Caucasus, subsequent to the breakdown of Imperial Russia. Most of the published accounts are in the German, French, and Russian languages and concern largely the activities of these nationalities In their Caucasian relations. Books and articles that have been written in English, while in some instances quite comprehensive, do not fully reveal the motivating ftyces that led to the formation of the Republics of the Caucasus, largely within the territorial boundaries of the ancient Georgian Kingdom. Such articles as have appeared In American publications are largely fragmentary and sketchy. In most of the literature that has been published there is a lack of continuity and unfortunately a superficial knowledge of not only the past but more immediate political history of the long existent nationalities that are now united into a Confederation of the Caucasian Republics, through overrun by the red army of Moscow, and held under the soviet dictatorship. The narrative of the struggle of the Caucasian States to maintain their national independence and sustain their international relations has not hitherto been assembled in one work. In view of the international importance of these submerged nationalities and their relations to the unsettled problems of Europe and America, I have prepared this brief account, which is drawn from various addresses and talks at informal luncheons, and dhinere to which I have been invited, at the Metropolitan, University, Lotus, Lawyers, and National Republican Clubs, and the National Civic Federation, all of New York City.
VASILI
D.
DUMBADZE.
280
NO-
JORDANIA
Chet de (a D6mocratie Georgienne
280-1
BEST AVAILABLE COPY
PRIMITIVE
AGRICULTURE
IN CAUCASIA
A VISTA
IN THE BEAUTIFUL TROPICAL GARDENS OF SUKHUM. A RESORT IN GEORGIA ON THE BLACK SEA. RECENTLY THE SCENE OF THE SO-CALLED SOVIET "CONGRESS"
Th+i' once famous resort was the Me.ca of tourists from Russia and the Middle East. and rivals the famous resorts of the Mediterranean. Its mineral waters were famed throughout Europe. To-day, aside from its beautiful foliage, it is in a sad state of neglect, though still visited bythousands of people seeking the benefit of the healtheiving springs
SUKHUM
ON THE
BLACK SEA.
GEORGIA'S
FAMOUS RESORT
I-.
BORJOM
NEAR
TIFLIS
tv.,
.--
*~Nil
C A CL R S
A GA E E
I N S AT C
A U
L A
A GA E E
GEORGIA'S MANGANESE
MINES AT CHIATURI.
MANGANESE
READY FOR SHIPMENT
71-1E
CAUCASUS
MOUNTAINS.
THE GATEWAY
BETWEEN
EUROPE
AND
ASIA
'0
4*
7HE CAUCASUS
MOUNTAINS.
OVER THE GEORGIAN
ROAD
TO NORTH
CAUCASIA
CATHEDRAL
ORTHO- )X
C-J'.:RC,4
TIFt IF
280--10
TIFLIS
THE
OPERA HOt.ISE AND PhOt" Y Ev-w,
GOLOVINSKI G'i0
PROSPECT, TIFLIS
A.:y. Nv Yr,
THE
HARBOR OF -I:; 3
BATUM.
THE
BLACK SEA
PORT OF
THE CAUCASUS
0IL TANKS AT BATUM,
THE BLACK SEA
PORT OF
THE CAUCASUS
-4
r~ur Ieee a-~ .hS~

.~
p.,
,~
I~dh'
-~
-,
1. 6AKU OIL FIELDS 2. BAKU ORTHODOX CHURCH 1. CITY AND HARBOR, BAKU
r, .~SIi t, *cb
.l!
ari Neir East Re.ef
15

NATIONAUTIE5 THAT WZEZ ZZhOaN
I. The new Republics of middle Europe that were dissevered from Imperial Russia and the German and Austrian Empires, and attained their national Independence after the World War, form an uninterrupted chain from Finland to Czechoslovaida. At th" southernmost border of Russia Is another group of non-Russian people, known in recent history as the Caucasian Republics. They occupy the ancient trade highway of Europe and Asia, between the Black and Caspian Seas, and embrace the territory of the Caucasus, stretching from beyond the northern slopes of the Caucasian Range, including the range itself and down to the northern Persian and Turkish borders-in geographical extent about equal to New England and New York-with a population of approximately 14,000,000.
NEGLIOENCE 0F THE GREAT POWERS
In the realignment of middle Europe, the protecting hand of the powers vas extended to the new buffer States between Russia and Germany, but they gave to the new Republics of the Caucasus little else than formal recogition. The result- of this unfortunate neglect has been to precipitate in the very cock-pit of the Near East a conflict that has not dim 1 Ished in the aftermath (of the World Peace, nor been solved by the recognition of the principles of international law. The Republics of the Caucasus, nominally free. are deprived by force of their sovereign rights.
IMPORTANCE TO AMEIANS
While the counsellors of the great powers at the Peace Conference were agreed that most of the new democracies that were born in war could not stand alone, the people of the Caucasus, whose Independence was reborn, were extended no permanent protection, though they fought with the Allies during the war. After gaining and maintaining their independence from Bolshevik Russia, they were left a prey to the treachery of the M(,scow terrorists and the threatening incursion of their southern neighbors, the Turks. They became a victim of both, while entitled to expect support that was so freely extended by Eurciae and America to the other new neighboring Republics, whose Independence was recognized coincident u~ith theirs. The great powers gave them insufficient assistance and Ineffective mandatory protection In the maintenance of their established sovereignties, thou.qh both these principles were recognized as essential In the maintenance of their independent state. To-day these Near East Republics of the Caucasus are suffering under the crushing rule of Bolshevism. Their problem of sustaining the national existence that is theirs by right of demonstrated self-determination and international recognition is of far-reaching importance to the peace and commerce of Europe and the Near East, as well as of humanitarian, religious, and economic !aterest to the United States. Theirs Is a cause that concerns the civilized wo.-!d, for It involves the whole problem of the spread of the godless and chaotic ,i.;ordc-r of .1'olshevism.
TE INCUBUS OF WORLD REVOLUTION
The conditions that exist in tile Caucasus is not a remote and vague theorem but an actual and living issue that toutches the world's hearthstones and concerrs the world's economic life, for the destructive sophistries of communism and the political aspirations of the Third International and the Moscow doctrine of world revolution are as dangerous to European and American civilization as they have demonstrated themselves to be blighting to Russia and the Caucasus and menacing In the Near and Far East. These doctrines and the activities of their disciples are international in their reach and proclaim the violent break-up of eve-ry form of government and religion by etablishing the "dictatorship of tile proletariat" ai,d the sovietized Irreligious cult of atheism. In the Caucasus the Bolshevik reigns. Let us glance at the picture and consider the hitorle, political, and economic past and present of these peoples and their claim to time attention of the civilized world, for they are amnog those races that "present the greatest humanitarian opportunity of the age," and -pon whose dee-tiny depends the " world's peace at the world's crossways, the focus of war infection since the beginning of history."
'Report eft Major Generl Harbord, of 1910, upon conditlows In the Near Vast.
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF OEOROIA

THUS GREAT NATURAL WIVALTII
I. The Caucasus--the southern part of which for 20 centuries was the ancient Kingdom of Georgia, and more remotely the land of Colchis and Iberia, the legendary site of the Garden of Eden and the cradle of the Aryan race-is now divided Into four newly formed Republics. They include Azerbaijan, with its vast pertoleum fields at Baku on the Caspian Sea; Georgia, with Its great manganese deposits, and the western terminal of the Transcaucasian railroad and pipe lines, on the Black Sea; North Caucasia, embracing the Grosny oil deposits, the buffer State to the south of Russia that took the brunt of the armies of Denikin and the Bolshevik raids; and Armenia, overrun by the savage Kurds and the scene of horror and famine that yet Invokes the aid of the charitable world.
STBATEOIC IMPORTANCE
Th.at these regions were of momentous strategic as well as material concern to thi Allies and the Central Powers during the Great War Is well known. The T.Lurk crossed the mountains and plains of Armenia to extend the Ottoman Empire to the Caucasian Range; Germany made a fruitless effort to gain a foothold In Georgia, In the summer of 191.1, at the eve of the great conflict; British troops scaled the lofty passes of Peiala to protect B-iku and to assist Georgia In counteracting the Bolshevik meaxace and its spread toward India; and, finally, Moscow sent Its red army down the Caspian and Black Sea littorels and over the Caucasian Mountains to recover what Imperial Russia had lost and to open the door of Bolshevik penetration in Asia M1nor and India. In those critical days, when the life of Europe was threatened, Transcaucasla was the key of the Near Eastern situation. The strategic and economic importance of the Republics of the Caucasus has not diminished, though their Independence Is unsustalned and the freedom that was theirs suffers under the rule of the Cheka and an !mposed dictatorship from Moscow.
TURET RIGHT TO LIVE
That the Republics of the Caucasus have a right to live and maintain their independent state is demonstrated by their history. They occupy a territory and embrace a people never wholly conquered by the Invading races of the earlier centuries nor merged or brought under the permanent yoke of Imperial Russia or Mohammedan Turkey. They have preserved their language, racial Identities, religious and national status, despite the intermingling of alien hordes, for over 2,000 years.
THE HEROIC STRUGGLE OF GEORGIA
AlU eastern races, from the Babylonians down, In turn unsuccessfully atteri 3ted to dominate the Caucasus, whose history goes back 5,000 years. Christiarity came to Georgia In the second century and was adopted early in the for rth as a State religion, displacing the worship of fire. In the eleventh century the Caucasian Isthmus, from earliest times the natural trade route between Europe and Asia, was the battle field of invading MongolH. In the fifteenth cent,.ry, isolated from Christian Europe by the capture of Constanti. nzople by the 'ibrks, the Kingdom of Georgia found herself in the midst of a secular struggle against the hordes of Mussulmen and Persians who ravaged her people, burned her cities and villages, and threatened her existence. The history of these centuries reveals the heroism and extraordinary gallantry of the Georgian people. The fame of the powerful King Irakly II, In the second half of the eighteenth century, spread throughout Europe. To iAm, Frederick the Great of Prussia liked to compare himself. "I, In Europe, and tbe invincible King Irakly in Asia," was his boast, and so great was his esteem :. r the Geoiglan King that he caused military medals to be stamped bearing )rakly's portrait and the inscription, "Fight like this lion of Georgia."
A FRIENDLY TREATY WITH RUSSIA
But despite her continuous opposition to the majority of her enemies forced Georgia to turn Russia, for protection and alliance. Out of her friendship" with Catherine the Great, In 1783, the the equal sovereign rights of the two nations and
Islamic tide, the crushing to her Christian neighbor, appeal came "a treaty of terms of which proclaimed guaranteed, on the part of
283
Russia, to treat the enemies of Georgia as her own enemies, and to assist her in regaining territory overrun by the Turks. In return for this, the Georgian King promised to consult Russal in relation to his foreign engagements. But Russia never fulfilled iL obligations imposed upon her by this treaty. When the Turks and Persians, inturIated by this alliance, invaded Georgia, she was left unaided to defend herself against her enemies. The goal of Russian policy is expressed in Doctor Dillon's book, The Eclipse of Russia, in which he quotes a Russian diplomat as saying: "The Kingdom of Georgia came to us and asked for an alliance. We made it. Some time afterwards the Georgians fell upon evil days. le;ng attacked by Persia, they claimed our active help a:i equals and allies. But we answered we were too busy elsewhere, and left them to their fate. Whereupon the Persians fell upon them and killed two men out of every three, so that the nation was literally bleeding to death. Then the Georgians came to us a secorLd time, now no longer as equals and allies, but as humble suppliants."
RUSSIA'S FORCEFUL ANNEXATION OF GEOnOIA
Russia's methodl of subjugating Georgia was only too successful. The Tsarist Government did not hesitate to take advantage of Georgia's weakened state. In 1801 it annexed, In open violatitm of the treaty of 1783, the entire territory of the Georgian Kingdom, and by that edict declared it a Russian Province. Proudly boasting of this usurpationp.the Emperors of 'Russia assumed the title of "Tsars of Georgia." Both England and France made a formal protest against the unlawful act. Georgia was not actually conquered by Russia. Only by open violation of the treaty of alliance which Georgia had concluded in good faith, was the Russian Tsar enabled to bring the Georgian Kingdom under his scepter. That the Russians became masters of Georgia by victorious warfare is not the historical fact. By a breach of international law Russia established her overlordship of this part as the Caucasus. Russia's subjugation of Georgia was completed by the annexation of Mingreila (in 1803) and Imeretia (in 1810), formerly independent principalities and parts of the ancient Georgian Kingdom.
GEOROIAN 1IGOH IN CZARIST GOVERNMENT
But in spite of the advantage taken of her momentary weakness, Georgia remained loyal to Russia which insured her the preservation of her Christirn religion. Following the annexation of Georgia, many Caucasians attained prominence in the Russian Government. In Imperialist armies and as governors of provinces Caucasian men occupied high posts and influenced the destiny of Russia. The distinguished Russian prime minister, Witte, well known in America for his activities in connection with the Portsmouth peace treaty during the Russian-Japanese War, gives in his memoirs (Vol. III, pp. 37 and 44) high praise for the loyalty, honesty, and courage of the Caucasians, "thousands and thousands of whom," he says, "have shed their blood for the honor of the Russian sword. * * * Caucasian generals have left behind the most brilliant pages in Russia's military history."
FOUoUr WITH THE ALLIES
The officials of the Caucasian vice royalty, however, were chiefly Russians because the Czarist Government followed a policy of disrupting the national sentiments of non-Russian minotltc-, by imposing local administration by Russians. Thus in czarist days Gergians and the other Caucasians seldom found an opportunity of devoting tb/i-r abilities to the direct benefit of their own country, with the only exceiloEF-of the small number who yielded to the Russification policy and abando.ied their native tongue and traditions. To liberate her Provinces, lost to Turkby, Georgia gave full support to Russia in the three wars against Turkey in thie nineteenth century, and lastly in 1914, when Georgia mobilized, apart from .those special Georgian volunteer corps fighting on the Caucasus front, about.200,000 of her best manhood In the cause of the Allies. These Georgians 'who followed Russia's call to arms, faithful to their duty, were, however, not permitted to defend their country against the Turk, but sent away to 19eIfsh in the fields of East Prussia and Galicia. The nation as a whole cherished the belief that the victory of the allied cause would be better for the future of Georgia and for humanity.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORIA

BREAKDOWN OP TIm IMPEIAL RULE
After the Russian revolution of February and March, 1917, and the overthrow of imperial Russia, the viceroy who had governed Caucasla In the name of the Czar ceased to function. The provisional government In Petrograd appointed as high commissioner for Transcaucasla-ncluding Georgia, AzerbalJan, and Armenia-the Duma deputy Akaky Tlchenkell, a Georgian patriot and social democrat, who had been several times exiled from Caucasa under the crarlst regime for his convictions.
SUPPORTED THE RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT
The revolution revived the hope of Georgia's best men to regain the liberty and sovereignty to which they were rightfully entitled. The attitude of the provisional government, however, destroyed these expectations. Despite the promises previously given by the Russian liberals to undo the injustice inflicted upon Georgia by the Czars' administrations, the provisional government attempted to continue the imperialistic policy of ezarism and opposed granting the claims of non-Russian nationalitic s for self-determialion. Though this disappointed the Georgian nationalists bitterly, the Georgan statesmen continued to work loyally for the creation of a democratic Russia. The head of the provisional government invited one of the foremost Georgians, the former Duma Deputy Tseretelll; a social democrat, to enter his cabinet. The member and leader of the social democratic party in the Duma, Tcheldze, was elected president of the Council of Workers and Soldiers' Deputies, which actually ruled Russia. From this council finally originated the Bolshevik movement, which the Georgian statesmen, Tseretelli and Tcheldze, had clearly foreseen and against which they bad warned the members of the council in vain. To the very last moment they tried to divert tle approaching catastrophe, but their efforts in Petrograd failed, and they returned to Georgia, where they took a prominent part In the organization of a national and democratic government, in opposition to Bolshevism.
TRANSCAUCASIA REFUSED TO JOIN IHOLS1ISTJC MfOSCOW
In October, 1917, when the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and Moseow, chaos followed in Transcaucasia through the withdrawal of the entire administrative, judicial, and military establishments, who fled across the frontiers and Joined the White Armies being organized to restore old Russia." This abandonment on the part of Russia released Georgia from all obligations toward the new government and threw her upon her own resources. The national integrity of the peoples that had been held forcibly under Russian rule was thus automatically restored. The situation, demanding organization and defense, forced the leaders and peoples of Georgia and the other nations of the Caucasus to take their fate into their hands, particularly In view of the imminence of the Turks on their frontiers, and especially to assure the continued development of their national life. The Transcaucaslans united No. vember 15, 1917, into a committee of government for the Transcaucasian States, forming a combined assembly, or selm, in February, 1918. III. The other nationalities of the Caucasus who, with Georgia, formed the Transcaucasian committee, possess a history as eventful as that of Georgia itself.
AZERBAIJAN
Azerbaijan during the Middle Ages was the battle field of Turks, Arabs, Persians, and nomadic tribes from the east. The new nation that has developed from the intermingling of all these different elements, with a preponderance of Mongols and Turks, is known as the Tartars. Their faith is the 9"That very day Russian soldats., freed from the yoke of autocracy by Tsar and bureaucracy and blindly assuming the attractive but heavier yoke of autocracy by the mob, were retreating In droves from the Turkish front so eager to abandon a) dreams of conquest or defense of territory in which they had no interest, for one more visit with the home folks, that many rode on the roof of the military train through the bitter cold of winter 0000 feet above the-sea. Tbe veneer of Russian greatness an outside show which iad caused even German to fear, has peeled off."-From articles by Maynard Owen Williams, of the staff of tle National Geographical Magazine, October, 1918.
NATIONAL IREPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
285
Islam.
"They have," says the Italian historian, Villari, in his Fire and Sword In the Caucasus, "a dignity of bearing and a charm of manner which endear them to all who come In contact with them." After a period of some hundred years of Turkish, and later Persian, domination, the Tartars, having definitely settled at the southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea and along the Caucasian River Kura, came under the rule of Russia, which by the treaty of 1813 acquired the territory from Persia. More than a hundred years of Russian overlordship, however, did not suffice to extinguish the strong tendency for national self-determination that was revealed after the outbreak of the revolution of 1917 and led to the union with the other Transcaucasian States.
ARMENIANS JOIN THE CONFEDERATION
The last member pf the Transcaucasian committee was Armenia, inhabited by an ancient Christian race, settled for many centuries in the hills and plains beneath the slopes of Mount Ararat. The Armenians had gained a predominent position in the economic life of the Caucabus. The last war between Turkey and Russiu, which was raging on Armenian territory, brought them to the edge of ruin. During the last centuries the Armenians had often fallen back upon tho Georgians, as in 1795, when thousands of refugees came to Georgia to escape the persecutions of the Persian Shah Agha-Mahomet-Kahn. Between 1827 and 1829 Georgian hospitality was extended to more than a hundred thousand Armenian refugees from Turkey and Z0,000 from Persia. So it was only natural that in their first attempt to organize an Independent nationality the Armenians approached their Georgian neighbors for mutual assistance.
THE NORTH CAUCASIANS
Beyond the Caucasian Mountains are the Circassians and other mountaineer tribes of Northern Caucasus who had for nearly 50 years fought fiercely for their independence, when at the beginning of the nineteenth century Russia tried to include the Caucasus in its domains. Toward the middle of the century Ihese mountaineers ef North Caucasus were conquered by the Russians. The conquest was made possible only by the fact that Russia had previously established a strategical basis in Georgia through its annexation. The mountaineers were chiefly Mohammedans. Their form of government, according to the accounts of British and other travelers, who in the middle of the last century visited the Caucasus, was "a species of aristocratic republic, composed of chiefs, nobles, and clansmen, in whom rank is only recognized in their public and patriarchal capacity, as chieftair.., law givers, and elders," while otherwise a perfect equality existed in all the relations of social and domestic life. The national hero of these liberty-loving people, Shamil, had gained worliwide fame in the first half of the last century, especially 'a the Mussuman world. An incident is recorded in Caucasian history that reveals the prominence of this outstanding figure. By special permission of the Czar, whose prisoner he was, he made the traditional pilgrimage to Mecca. When Sultan Abdul-Asis received him in Constantinople he showed his esteem by kissing Shamli's hands, the token of the highest reverence among Mohammedans.
SET UP AN INDEPENDENT UNION
The attention of the whole of Europe was turned to the gallant and desperate struggle for liberty that was taking place in Caucasla. In 1849 the famous writer, Bodenstedt, prophetically wrote of the mountaineers' heroic defense these words: "This war is not only a fight of men against men; it is a struggle of the mountains against the Steppe. The people of the Caucasus may change, but the air of freedom blowing from its mountainous heights will remain always the same." The mountaineers were never assimilated by the Russian conquerors, but preserved their nationality in the face of all attempts of Rusiflcatlon. About 600,000 Cherkesses and other mountaineers emigrated to Turkey after the Russian conquest. The greater part of them perished by disease and starvation. Their deserted homes were taken over by Cossack immigrants who formed the backbone of Russian rule in the mountains. In May, 1917, they
280
NATIONAL RBPUBLIO OF 0EORQIA
availed themselves of the opportuinty which the revolution offered to regain their sovereignty. They set up the independent "union of the peoples of the Northern Caucasus" at Vladikavkaz, which was supplanted in December of union of mountaineers." Their sympathies for the Transthat year by the '" caucasians did not lead to a formal union. Internal difficulties with Bolshevik elements and General Denikin's attack, which finally in March, 1919, destroyed the union of the mountaineers, prevented it from effective cooperation with the Transcaucasian committee. IV. Grave difficulties confronted the new Transcaucasian governments from the very beginning. The treaty of Brest-Lltovsk, signed in March, 1918, by Soviet Russia and German and her allies, conceded the whole southern part of Transcaucasia, the districts of Kars, Batum, and Ardahan, to Turkey. The Transcaucasian Seim had protested against this act, which had been agreed upon without its knowledge and approval.
THE TILNSCAUCASAN FEDERATION FORMED
In March and April of 1918 delegates of Transcaucasia had been in conference with the Turks at Trebizond. But these negotiations, which aimed at a separate peace between Transcaucasla and Turkey, were broken off as fruitless. The separate procedure of the Transcaucasian Government was legalized by a formal declaration of the independence of Transcaucasia April 22, 1918, followed by the formation of a Transcaucasian Federation which was ert9fd to supplant the former Transcaucasian committee. While the delegates at Trebizond had been inclined to grant the excessive demands of the Turks, yielding to the pressure of circumstances, the government and seim, or assembly, in Tiflis, were resolved to continue the war, in the hope of forcing from the Turks less severe conditions of peace. However, the mixed army, awaiting demobilization, opposed the continuation of hostilities, and, furthermore, the Mussulman members of the seIm from Azerbaijan, inspired by their religious feelings, declared with their national frankness that they were unable to participate in a war against their brothers in the faith.
TURKISH AMBITIONS IX CAUCASIA
Resolved to settle all further issues by force, the Turks occupied the districts which they claimed in accordance witb the terms of the Brest-Litovsk treaty. To prevent further bloodshed the Transcaucasian Federation, recoursing to diplomatic means instead of brutal force, convened with the Turks in a conference at Batum. Now, however, the Turks wanted to gain control of all of Transcaucasia in order to facilitate the aggression against the British in Persia, and presented conditions far beyond the limits of the Brest treaty, to which treaty they did not feel bound, as Transcaucasia had not accepted its terms in Trebizond. When the delegates refused to accede to these new conditions, the Turks presented an ultimatum demanding acceptance within 72 hours. In this critical moment the German delegate, General v. Lossow, approached the Transcaueasian delegates with an offer of intervention. The delegates from Azerbaijan, who were Mohammedans, did not wish, however, to accept this offer, and thus offend the Turks. It became, therefore, imperative for the other Stetes, to whom the German intervention was agreeable, to act independently, and particularly as the Turks were already invading Georgia, occupying a large pert of her territory.
THE REPUD!3LCS OF CAUCASTA DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE
Georgia realized that she must act independently or become the victim of Turkish ambition, which sought to create a Turkish empire that included all the Islamitie tribes of Caucasia and Persia, and extend its influence from the Black to the Caspian Seas. In May, 1918, a German division occupied Georgia and its capital, Tiflls, to prevent the Turks from exceeding the limits accorded by the Brcst-Litovosk treaty. Georgia therefore accepted the protection of the German commander, extending to the German troops the use of the railways and ports, and on May 26, 1918, Ini Tiflis, declared its independence. Azerbaijan and Armenia followed on May 28. Thus were the Caucasian Republics
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF 0Z0OIA
287
born and saved from Turkish rule.' On June 3, 1918, a treaty with Turkey was signed, agreeing upon territorial boundaries identical with those specified In the Brest treaty. After the coneluslon of the Armistice in France, November, 1918, the Ger. mane withdrew from the Caucass. The presence of British troops which followed, did much to sustain the iwlependence of the new Republics.
THN .3W OWoRoAN DEMOCRACY
V. The Georgian people under their restored sovereignty, which was abolished under the Russian rule, built up their new government and established nternationa'. relations. Their act of Independence' Was approved, confirmed, and ratified Mdarch 12, 1919, by their constituent assembly elected according to the electoral system of direct, equal, universal, secret,, and proportional voting of citizens of both sexes. The constitution and political organization was that of a democratic republic. The executive power was entrusted to th;D cabinet, whose president was elected by the assembly, and who appointed, as does the American President, the members of his cabinet. The administrative bodies were controlled by the assembly, to which the ministers were personally respoaoible and whose confidene they must possess. Administration was decentralized by enlarging the power of the local conneils, democratically elected. Towns, rural distriots, and villages exercised complete self-government In all questions relating to local, economic, and educational questions. All citizens were equal in the eyes of the law. The Georgian nobility, formerly enjoying wide privileges, renounced them voluntarily, inspired by their democratic feelings. The Interests of workmen were fully protected. The church was completely separated from the State.
TIHC MENSHEVIST8
The controlling political party was the Social-Democratic, adherent to called 11 menchevism." #
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY IN OEOBOIA
o-
Social democracy in Georgia grew out of the economic unrest of the agrarian population and the attachment to nationalistic principles of all classes universally opposed to the Russiah yoke. Beginning as a political party of protest against the excessive taxation and civil restrictions, It developed raphily Into a national movement. Under the prevailing system of landed proprietorship the small farmer was subjected to the dictation of the landlord as to the extent and period of the tenancy. He did not possess the ability or power to secure just rewards for his products. The obnoxious system of heavy taxation 'That these events are almost unknown or at least often completely misunderstood, to exemplified by a stalement In a reetat book by an Amercan professor of history. Ile wrltvs, after mentionlng the formal announcement of 'rruansceaucas' secession irom Russia. on April 22: '"he exanp.e of Transeaueasia became epidemic, however, for Oorgia declared her Independence o'u Slay 26. 1918; on Slay 28 the Tntarg of Azerbaljan and the Isiillsan Armenians did the same. The Tranvancaslan Union went to piecetp as the explosive effect of revolution spread." (Denn.. The Foreign Policies of Soviet Itunsla, p. 205.) The fact is that the Transcaucatilan Union consisted of Georgis, Azerbaijau. and Armn nia. The declaration of the Indepenelence of Transcaucasla could not, therefore Induce these states, who were Identical with it, to follow Its example. The union fell apart when the altuatlh In lalurn became critical and demanded separate action, and not as an aftermath of the revolution. This fact has evaded the author. 2Spe Appendix. *Under the system of proportional suffrage, the whole country wats tik'n as one electoral district and the 180 seats of the assembly distributed amonf all parties In proportion to the number of votes cast for their candidates. In the election to the Constlilieit Assembly. February. 1919, 614.000 electors voted: Social Democrats, 408.000 votes-IC9 seats; National Democrats, 30,000-8 seats; Federal Socialists, 3.Q40-8 seats. The Menshevist Is the doctrine of the minority of the former Russian Social Democratle Party. deriving Its name from the Russian word "menshe" meaning "small," which came Into existence In 1906 by separating from the majority, or "Itolshevite." from "bolshe" meaning "great." The MenshevIsts were the advocates of the form of Russian socialism that aimed to attain Its ends by peaceful economical progress within the boundaries of law, by evolution. The boishevists are their antipodes, pursuing a method of forcible change of society, the destruction of capitalism and the church, by revolution. 96153-26---19
NATIONAL REPUBLO OF GEORGIA increased his burden. Since the beginning of the present century-the expansion of the Chiatury manganese mines, the oil Industry, and harbors at Potl and Batum, the transcaucaslon railways, and other commercial enterprises-thotusands of peasants and laborers were attracted to industrial occupation. -A permanent working class resulted and gradually organized Itself Into economic bodies. Into thee unions came the laborers from the farms, who gave part of tieir year to the industrial life of the nation, returning to their fields at planting and harvest time. Agitated by the socialistic elements from Russia, the disaffected farmers soon joined the permanent working class organization.
8P111T OF NATIONAISM PRMsZVD
The attempted Rusalfcatlon of the Georgians of all classes only helped to preserve and stimulate the spirit of nationalism that never forgave or forgot Russia's violation of her treaty of 1783 and her arbitrary annexation of Georgia In 1801. This universal protest crystallized Into the Social-Democratic -Party which, In the very nature of Its character, readily realized In the political party In Russia opposed to the autocratic czarist regime, a basis for affiliation. The terroristic methods of the Russian "Social Revolutionaries" did not appeal to the Georgians. The Socizi Democrats, on the other hand, were pursuing their alms by regulatoy pol.0.cai action. Moreover, the Russian Government presented a tolerant fto.t toward the Social Democrats, while vigorously -opposing the terroristic Social Revolutionaries and the nationalistic tendencies which threatened to break up the empire. In the movement toward social democracy in Georgia the Russian Government thought It saw a breakdown or countermove that would effectively destroy Georgian nationalistic unity by creating a breach between the middle class and the peasantry. Though Imperial Russia suppressed nationalistic agitation In Georgia, the growth of social democracy, in the beginning an .economic movement, was not Impeded until the revolution of 1904-5.
DISSATISFIED ELEMENTS JOIN TOOETHE
Into the Georgian party of social democracy flocked all of the dissatisfied elements of all classes, Irrespective of their divergency of aims or views.' Thus In a country where industrial development was still in its Infancy there grew a popular party of commanding position where a so-called Industrial proletariat hardly existed. While In other countries social democracy was antinational In spirit, In Georgia it Included nationalistic aspirations-political doctrines normally incompatible. This was demonstrated in the spring of 1918, when the Social Democratic Party unanimously supported the movement for Independence and took active part ID the patriotic rebirth of Georgia's national existence. The menshevists carried out reforms In Georgia along democratic lines, This policy was contrary to that of the Russian counterrevolutionary leaders, Generals Yudenitcb, Denikin, and Wrangel and Admiral Koltsehak, who attempted restoration on a reactionary basis, which method without doubt prevented their movements from gaining the support of the populace, especially of the peasantry who feared the return of the old unsatisfactory methods of landholding.
DEVZOPUENT UNDER INDEPENDENCE
The Georgian Government, and along similar lines the other Caucaslon Governments, sought to bring their country up to the most perfect organization of life by means of systematic development of all the material and educational resources of the people, and by the consolidation of the democratic institutions. All parties and all classes of the population cooperated willingly with the Government regardless of personal sacrifices.
s Had not the RussiAcation policy forced the Georgians Into a thirty opposed to the Imperial away over Georgia, these members of the Soclal-Democratic Party. who were far from being proletarians In the accepted meaning of the word would naturally have become scholars instead of agitators, or have attached themselves to that class of Caucasian officers, of whom Count Witte wrote. "they left behind the most splendid pages In military history."
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORG A

PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS
289
The State embarked on far-seeing undertakings, such as construction of railways, highways, roads, bridges, viaducts, drainage of marshlands, the irrigation of arid plains, etc. That these plans were only partially carried out and that the efforts to maintain a firm democratic commonvealth failed finally, was due to the unsettled external situation which was created by the Jntrigues of Moscow Bolchevike Temporarily, the Bolsheviks were held off by the English troops who occupied Baku for a short time in August, 1918, and again in November, 1918. The British expedition, under Major General Thompson. withdrew to Batuta in the summer of 1911, and departed July, 1020.
PROTECTED BY TIE ENGLISH TROOPS
Though the English forces gave transitory protection to the Georgian State, and effectively prevented external Interference, the political attitude of the British Government toward the Caucasus was one of exigency. In the first expedition to 3aku in Azerbaijan, the British came up through Persia to protect the oil fields against the German-officered Turkish forces. In this they foiled. In their second expedition to Caucasia, after the armistice. they prevented the occupation of Transcaucasia by the Bolsheviks ndal held off the designs of the new Turkish Government, formed by Kemal Pasha, to regain possession of part of Georgia, including the province and port of Batum, on the Black Sea.
DISHEABTENING ATTITUDE OF BECRETAVY COLY
After the defeat of the white armies of Wrangel and Denikin, in Soutf Russia, Lloyd George questioned whether Soviet Russia In repossession of her the Near East, lost provinces was the greater menace to the British Empire M% or the new Turkish Government with Its territorial aspirations. Colncldently English trade mission at Moscow sought to secure the oil concessions in the Baku. The little republics of the Caucasus had become the victims of oil diplomacy. In addition to the baleful influence of Lloyd George's position came Secretary Colby's declaration regarding the inviolability of Czarist Russia's frontiers, "with the exception of Finland proper, ethnic Poland, and such territory as may by agreement form a part of the Armenian State." The Bolsheviks were heartened by the attitudes of the English Premier and the United States Secretary of State, which brought consternation to the newly formed democracies of the Caucasus.
FAVORABLE ATTITUDE OF M'DONAU) AND CURZON
The conclusion of an alliance between Moscow and the new Turkish Government, in Angora, evidently led England to hope that the Russians would refrain from their further advance against Afghanistan and India, as compensation for a free hand in Caucasla. Reawakening traditions of English policy from the time of the Crimean War (1853-1855) when the support of the fight for liberty of the independent Caucasian Mountaineers' Republic had been seriously considered, inspired both the labor and conservative leaders, J. Ramsey McDonald and Lord Curzon, to advocate, at the end of 1920, the maintenance of the free Caucasian States as a frontier between Russia on the one hand and Persia and Turkey on the other. Lloyd George, the leader of the English Liberals, at that time in power, had already decided otherwise.
RED ARMY INVADES CAUCASIA
VI. Beset on the south by the Turks and on the north by the Bolsheviks he Republics of the Caucasus were confronted by a constant state of war. The Northern Republic, beyond the Caucasian Mountains, which had, as has been told, also formed an independent State. was invaded by the Bolsheviks and later occupied by Denikin's army, who came in 1919 under the pretext of fighting the Red Army. In January, 1920, Soviet Russia's proposal to Georgia to enter into a military alliance against Denlkin was rejected. In April, 1920, the Reds succeeded in occupying Baku and assuming power In Azer-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA tbaijan and later on In Armenia, taking advantage of the helpless state of these two countries, that were paralyzed by economic chaos and Internal dissensions. All attempts to counteract the Bolsbevik menace effectively In Azerhajan and Armenia therefore failed entirely.
SOVrWr XUSsIA ECOONIUS INDKPMDV0 OF OWMoA
The war of Poland with Soviet Russia gave Georgia her first opportunity to pmsue a vigorous defense against the Bolsheviks in 19M, and Soviet Rusa, now anxious to placate Georgia, engaged In a treaty, May 7, 190, remognizing the independence of Georgia and her territorial integrity. In this treaty the Soviet Government declared that "Russia recognizes without reservation the Independence and sovereignty of the Georgian State, and voluntarily renounces all sovereign rights which belonged to Russia with respect to the Georgian people and territory." This was Georgia's final triumph and conclusive release from the soviet claims. TREACHEBY OF T119 SOVIET oOVENNT From Moscow's point of view, however, this treaty was a cloak to enable her within one month after its ratification to foment a communistic revolution within the borders of the Republic and to accomplish by secret propaganda and treachery what she had failed to achieve by force. Nearly a thousand agents of Cheka were imported, under various pretexts, resorted to by her diplomatic mission at Tiflis, and by the expenditure of large sums of money and by extravagant promises of loot the communists proceeded to dieaffect the Georgiansand attempted to subvert the national army and to create irritating causes as an excuse for forceful interference.s In the meantlipe the independence of the Caucasian Republics was confirmed through recognition by the European powers. The Alliev, in convention at Paris at the beginning of the year 1920, wer,. regarding favorably the efforts of the new Republics to stabilize their national life. On January 12, 11Y2), their supreme council, representing the Allied and Associated Powers, 1,cludlng England, France, Italy, and Japan, formally recognized the de facto independen(e of Georgia and Azerbaijan. Armenia's recognition followed shortly afterwards, Including recognition by the United States. CAUCASIAN RZUBLICS RECOGNIZED BY EUROPZAN IPOWZRS The average Russian, whose ideal was a Russia as great and centralized as It had been in the czarist days. and even the Liberal, who had formerly pretended to take the stand of the national minorities, had watched Georgia's and Caucasia's advance toward independence with animosity, because some lid not know and others ignored Georgia's historical rights and the racial differences between the Caucasians and Russians. Before the rise of Bolsherism the Caucasians wanted to be on friendly terms with the 130.000.000 of Russians, on whom they were dependent in many respect& But the Russians wonld rather have seen the 14,000,000 of Caucasians their subjects than their friends. The strongest exponent of this attitude was General Denikln. who In 1919-20 commanded the white armies operating In South Russ hi. Even he, however, upon British representat!ons. eventually recognized Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia's independence on February 11, 1920. 'The system employed by the Third International of Moscow. a willing tool of the Wbovt'Government. is to gain entrance to foreign countries under the protection of Soviet Russia's treatles and to plot. with the help of Cheka sgentm. a revolution which afterwards shall afford a pretext for mIlitary intervention on the request of "natIves" who are usually Imported from Moscow for this purpose. This system wao lately tried i Esthonla. this time, however, without success. A still further example of Soviet Russia's methods in planting propaganda agents of world revolution in foreign countries with whonw they have treaties I. Illustrated by recent events In Germnny. A dispatch from Berlin of April 8, 1925. tells: " In the trial of 18 offirals of the HFamburg Cheka, which just ended 5 executions are expected. Soviet Russia prepares for the exchange of the condpn, a and of the 'General' of the Red Army. Skohole.stki (orey. for the German professors, Klnderman Woblstat, Ditmaring, who were arrested in Soviet Russia Irrespective of the previous permision to come to Soitet Russia for scientific purpose."

GEORGIA'S DI UR INIDEPBNDENCE RZOONIZED
291
In spite of the favorable attitude toward Georgia, no material aid from the Allies was forthcoming, when at the end of the year 1920 the intrigues of Moscow grew more menacing. On January 27, 1921, the great powers confirmed their de facto recognition by recognizing, through the supreme council, the de Jure Independence of the Georgian Republic. The conclusion of the Polish war, however, and the collapse of the White Army in the Crimea gave Moscow her chance to culminate her treacherous and stealthy invasion of Georgia.
ITALY'S PROMISED MANDATE I0NOED
As a result of the establishment of Bolshevik rule In Azerbaijan In April, 1920, and Armenia, December, 1920, Georgia found herself threatened by the Bolsheviks on the north and east and by the Turks on the south. An agreement between the Italian and the British Governments, by which the former had promised to accept a mandate, if necessary, upon the withdrawal of the English troops from Georgia, was ignored when a new Italian Government under Nitti came into power. INVASION OF TIHE RED ARMY So the little Caucasian Republican faced, unaided, tha danger that was menacing her existence through the gathering of strong Bolshevik forces near her frontiers in Armenia and Azerbaijan. While the Turks again attempted to occupy Batam, on which they had concentrated their interest after the departure of the British troops, the Bolsheviks grasped the opportunity to march on Tiflis. Moscow moved its red army from the west across the Black Sea coast, from the east along the River Kura and from Armenia in the south. Upon the arrival of these overwhelming forces the officials of the Georgian Government were forced to remove to Batum and eventually to embark on an Italian warship and to take refuge in Eur-pe. This was in February and March, 1921. France and England, who had recognized the independence of Georgia, confined themselves to formal protests. France expressed her sympathy by extending cordial hospitality to the Georgian exiles and the Georgian Govern. ment. The grave problems in Middle Europe and elsewhere which engaged the whole attention of the European powers made them forget the calamity that overwhelmed the small democracy In far-away Caucasia.
THE POWERS OF EUROPE REPUDIATE BOLSHEVIK RULE IN CAUCASIA
In the recent attempted rapprochement of 1924 between Great Britain and Soviet Russia the English Government declared again'that it would not recognize the usurpation of Soviet Russia in Georgia. A similar position was also taken by the French Government in its treaty of recognition with Soviet Russia. France still declines to recognize Bolshevik rule in Georgia. She In a most chivalrous manner adheres to the agreement previously made with the free Georgian people and consistently refuses to yield to the Bolshevik reproaches fec her dealings with the exiled Government, which, under France's protection, Is In Paris In diplomatic relations with the great European powers.
BOLSIIEVIK OUTRAGES
VII. The murderous Invasion of the Bolsheviks in Georgia was communistic Moscow's defiance to Europe's recognition of the sovereignty of that republic, and a typical example of the soviet government's treacherous use of its treaties and disregard of its obligations unler them. A more brutal violation of the laws and customs of nations, than that committeed in Caucasla could not be imagined. Moscow delivered no ultimatum, made no declaration of war, gave no valid excuse for her intrigue and surreptitious penetration, but without warning or pretext swooped down upon Georgia, as she had on the other Caucasian republics, for purposes of conquest and the seizure of the wealth of the nation, and the despoliation of her Christian churches and schools. Priests of high and low degree were stripped of their robes, forced into dirty soviet uniforms, maltreated and many killed or banished. The Patriarch (Katholikos) Ambroslus was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment
292
for the only crime of having sent a protest against this horror to the League of Nations. The churches wete looted and turned into dance halls, the women outraged, and children massacred. Thousands were murdered and thousands sent into exile. Others were forced to take refuge in foreign countries. Stores and houses were plundered and the railroads end factories robbed of their best equipment. A prosperous and happy country was brought to a state of ruin and forced, against the will of the people, under the merciless and devastatinghyprocrsiy was revealed from Moscow. Soviet rule of soviet communists, sent th Bolshevik official press when of Moscow declared that the overthrow of the Georgian Government had not been accomplished by the red army,. but by a revolutionary movement from within the Georgian Stttte. In tin attempt to Justify her course, an entirely false account of what transpired In the Caucasus was broadcasted to the world. Soviet Russia sought to-conceal her Imperialistic ends by setting up a government In Tifln composed of red partisans of Georgian nationality, imported from Moscow and long associated with the communistic state.
TilE RULE OF TIlE MOSCOW CREKA, A SECOND INQUISITION
The soviet government which was forced upon the Georgian people and derived its powers from the strength of the Russian army of occupation, is not accepted by the Georgian people as their rightful government. Moscow persists in its attempt to "sovietize" these non-Russian democratic peoples. Except where the red army's garrisons are maintained, and where the Cheka, the Russian Inquisition, rules, this violent procedure is not successful. The Cheka-prosecutor, Judge, and executioner in one-imposes the death sentence, or decree of deportation, without,trial. Thus it io enabled to exert the greatest terror without any restriction and It has not refrained from using its powers rigorously.
MoSCOW'S AITEMI T TO APPEASE TPZ
CAUOASIAn.
RMUBLCS
The methods of the Cheka are hardly paralleled in ancient or modern times. The policy employed is of false a.1usations, barbaric torture and terrorism, to wholly break the spirit and morale of the people and reduce them to abject obedience and nonresistance. According to statistics available until 1021, the victims of this seret police In all of Russia exceeded three millions, among them chiefly physicians, engineers, lawyers, other members of the Russian Intelligentsta, laborers, and peasants. Since the occupation of Georgia in 1921, the Cheka has continued its terrorism there, maintaining its headquarters in Titls. and having its agents throughout Caucasla. The Caucasianms abhor Bolshevism, hut as the communists' press dominates and their own press and language is permitted for propaganda only, they are unable to express their real feelings openly. They will, It is certain, never accept the communistile idealogles of Moscow nor submit to the rule of the soviets. The general discontent and opposition of the population against Moscow's method of governing by terror and the Cheka, became so strong that the government in Moscow has tried to mislead the outside world and appease its criticism by granting formal autonomy to the Caucasian States by permitting them to establish a Transcaucasian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic by tin agreement signed March 12, 1922. This federation includes the "soviet republics" of Azerbaijan, Armenia, ard Georgia, and Is a member of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. According to the constitution of this Union of Socilist Soviet Republics of July 0, 1923, each united repub. lic retains the right of free withdrawal from the Union. (Cit. II, 4.) This was the pretense of freedom that was inserted to deceive the people and fool the world.
0SCOW'S MEANINGLESS " CONSTITUTION " GRANTED THE " SOVIETIZED REPUBLICS"
Its true meanin- was illustrated when, In September and October, 1924, Georgia attempted to exercise this right and regain her independence. Her movement was stamped as a revolt. This uprising revealed for a short time to the outside world the real s!tuation in Transcaucasia. The attempt on the part of the Georgians was the spontaneous outburst of a suppressed and sufferIag nation. Though it failed, It gave notice to the worhl that the Georgian people did not accept the soviet rule, and it was serious enough to frustrate the Russo-British negotiations for a loan to Soviet Russia, as it emphasized
NATIONALi REPUBLIC OF GIORGA
293.
the contention of the national governments of Caucasla that the manganese deposits of Georgia as well as the oil fields of Baku are very uncertain assets for Soviet Russia to pledge for a loan. The peoples of the Caucasus have demonstrated that they will never peacefully submit to the red "government by asassinatton."
REVOLT ORICOOiA'S
The uprising of 1924 was suppressed with all the savageries and Inhumanities characteristic of Cheka rule. Among others, the metropolitan of the Georgian Church, Nazaril, was murdered at Kutals. Women and children of the soldiers fighting In the moujitains were used as shields by the Bolsheviks during their attacks. The number of victims of all the outrages was about 20,000. Even Llyod-George, who had been deaf to the pleas from Caucasla, raised his voice against the Bolsheviks. He emphatically denounced the Russian atrocities in Georgia. "To-day," he said, alluding to the bloodshed in Georgia, "it is a red province in more senses than one." The Soviet Government hastened to accuse France and England of supporting and encouraging the "revolution" in Ceorgia. But their accusations were groundless, as the patriots had not nxceived any outside assistance. It was the absence of any support that finally vrecked their heroic efforts, after a fortnight's embittered struggle against the overwhelming Bolshevik forces.
THE PEACE OF EUROPZ IN TEE DAIANOC
VIII. The peace of Europe Is dependent upon the preservation of the new republics that border on .Russia. Europe's political and economic life will be In unrest unless they are sustained. The communistic Intriques of Soviet Russia, and especially the late communistic revolution in Esthonla. staged by the Cheka In obeyance of Moscow's orders, resulted In bringing together the Governments of Bulgaria and augoslavla Into a defensive union against Blshevsm-a union which is Intended to include also the other Balkan Stat.es. It Is likely that Finland and Latvia will Join Esthonla Into a Baltic league In a common defense against communism.' Poland, Czechoslavakla, and Rnmania, likewise threatened by the disease of Bolshevism, are about to unite together for a like purpose.
A nULHESAD AOATNST THE "PROMISED LAND" OF BOLSHEVISM
Were Georgia similarly assured as were her sister republics, her heroic struggle against Bolshevism would have been conclusive and far-reaching. The Caucasus is alone the geographical and racial barrier against Bolshevism between Asia Minor and Russia. Asia, not yet fully aroused to the Influence of western culture, Is the "promised land" for Bolshevism, where it adapts the radical idealogies of "liberty" to the strong tendencies of national Independence. The menace of communism In British India is a real danger for the British Empire that would be minimized and perhaps effectively curbed by a readjustment of the situation of the Caucasus. In 1921 J. Ramsay McDonald (in the Contemporary Review) advocated the creation of a "solid block of free and federated States to hold that strategic highway between Europe and Asia." One thing, in his opinion, made this policy practicable: Georgia. "This Is," he said, "a people of determined nationality, a people that has Inde. pendence in its blood, that believes In self-help and is not Imperialistic, that in modern times will be a bulwark, as it was in olden times, against Invasion both from the east and the west, that will be a pillar of strength to both Azerbaijan and Armenia."
SOVIET PRFTENSF8 IN CAUCASTA
Furthermore, the rein.atements of these democratic border states would encourage the elements in Russia which are striving for a democratic form .of government and the abolishment of the "dictatorship of the proletariat." The outburst of the latent Internal crisis In Russia, now suppressed by Bolshevist terror, but nevertheless spreading, slowly and steadfastly, would be 1A dlpratch from Riga. April 7, 1925, a a8: "A conference among the Baltic Republics. Latvla, E.sthonla. Vinland and Poland Orra~e at a decision establisblng a common military alliance apl'.st Bolshevlks."-Tbe Novoye Rueskoye Sove.
NATIONAL ICPUL3LW O
GEORGIA
precipitated. This healing crisis against Bolshevism for which the world ti waiting, has soC alarmed Soviet Russia that in March the meeting of the " on gres s " mas held in Tillle, the capital of Georgia. In an eo-etled Soviet attempt to impress the world by Its demonstrations and propaganda, its empty promises of "reform" and Its statements that the rule of the led Army was welcomed by Georgia and the other Caucasian Republics. It was a gesture that was empty and hateful to the suffering people, deprived of their own government, their press. and their civil and religious freedom, and oppeed by the rtle of the Cheka.
Ta MJMAZA A F o0OIA
Georgia and the other Caucasian Republics, have the fortune, or misfortune, G 9f being amou the richest little oountries, in natural resources, in the world. Georgias great manganese deposits, essential to the steel industry of the world, could supply the requirements for 200 years. They actually lqntributed phore than one-half of the world's needs, and supplied over half 99 the nmanganeom used In the United States before the war. The manganese deposits bave a potential output of more than $100,000.000 a year. The manganese mne, bad before the war not reached the limit of their producing capacity. By imposing excessive railroad freight rates and providing i',suf. ficlent loading facilities in the seaports, the Ruslan Government was able to curb the further expansion of Georgia's manganese export, a policy that was inspired by the desire to lessen the strong competition for the Nikopol mines in southern Russia, in which several members of the imperial family and other Influential Rualans held controlling shares. Aside from the manganese minee, Georgia possesses several large deposits of iron ore, the export of which, however, has been hindered In by the cost of transportation, as the ore could not be smelted In the country due to the Inadequacy of the required fuel. Immense quantities of copper ore exist. in the Georgian soil. Copper is found almost everywhere throughout the State and is regarded as one of its great assets. One of the largest and most productive mines, In the southeastern part of Georgia, has been worked since 1864. Another copper zone has been exploited for 100 years, originally by the Georgian Kingdom, and later by a French company on a lease. There are many other mines of more or less various conditions and workings although not In a high state of development, due to the difficulty of access and the lack of transportation for the necessary fuel. Georgia hus been called, potentially, a second Montans, on account of the practically limitless copper deposits. Aside from copper, which Is found not only In Georgia, but throughout all of Caucasla, ialver-lead and zinc are plentiful; mercury, nickel, and cobalt are also mined, and, tpDan Insigniflcant degree, gold, which was n ancient times mined by the Romans and In prehistoric times is said to have been the mythical "golden fleece" that lured the Argonautes to Caucasla.
H YDR0TOLECU I0]'OWER
The development of hydroelectric power in Georgia is still In Its Infancy. The great number of rivers and streams of the Caucasian Range, one of the largest mountain chains in the world, offers vast opportunities as an Inexhaustible source of water-power energy, a source that has hardly been tapped, due to the lethargy of the former Russian Government, which did not initiate a hydraulic enterprise either for profit or public benefit. The power and light installations now existing are all due to private capital. There are at present in Georgia hydroelectric stations at Tifis, Gorl, Kutais, Datum, nnd at several other places. It Is estimated that Georgian water power, if utilized, could supply at Its lowest flow in the winter 2,500,000 horsepower, in the spring and fall, 4,000,000 horsepower, and in the summer 6,000,000 horsepower. The latest estimate of the water power for all of Caucasia is 10,000,000 horsepower.
AGRICULTURE AND FOREST
Like all countries of eastern Europe, Georgia is predominantly agrarian. The soll rivals In fertility the south Russian "humus," but the agricultural methods are very primitive. The main products grown are wheat, barley, oats, corn, and rice. In 1913 the crops of cereals were estimated at 204,000
NATIONAL REPUBLIO OV 'OEON&
295
bushels. With modern methods, the output could be increased twentyfold. The variety of the other products, tea, wine, tobacco, silk cocoon:, etc., shows the Immense versatility of this country. Before the war animal breeding *as one of the most valuable of agricultural occupations. lu 1913, Georgta's livestock amounted to 2,000,000 sheep and goats, 1,600,000 cows and buffaloath 20,000 horses, and 4,000,000 hogs. Large forests are on the southern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains, covetrIng 6,000,000 acres or 89 per cent of Georgia's territory. They aro of th4 greatest variety, contaling about 800 kinds of trees, of which oahs, beehes, chestnuts, boxwood, white and yellow pine are the most important, A con. siderable part of Europe's timber supply originated fom the Caueasus,
RUSSIA'S BACKWARD ECONOMIC POLICY i TRZ CAUCASUS
Manufacture Is not yet developed to the degree which could naturally be expected in view of the opportunities of the country. This Is due to the unfavorable attitude of the former Czarist Government, which, through pro. hibitive tariffs and by denying the proper commuuieation faciitve effectlvelt hampered the building up of the manufacturing industry in (Georgia. The economic policy of the Russian Government aimed to e'.ttall the development of industries in Caucasla, in order to avoid comp-titon for central Russian manufacturers.
FAMED MINERAL SPRINGS AND RESORTS
The climate, as a rule excellent, varies with the different parts of the count. try. In the western parts the climate Is subtropical, in the eastern parts dry. Numerous mineral springs, of which there are about 500, partly containing sulphur and radium, famed for purity and healing qualites, and many still undeveloped, are the basis for the establishment of health resorts In the southerfl Caucasus, comparable to the already famous reports of the northern slopes of the Caucasian Mountains. These mineral springs were in pro-war days a Mecca for thousands of patients and pleasure seekers. Under a stabilized government they have vast possibilities of development.
RAILWAY IN TEH CAUCASUS
Means of communication and transportation are developed to considerable extent. In all of Caucasia there are about 4,000 miles of railroad touching the leading cities, penetrating the agricultural districts, and reaching to the print. cipal mineral springs. The main railroads are the Transcauesslan (Baku. Batum) Railway, crossing the picturesque valleys and fertile plains of Georgia and Azerbaijan, 556 miles long, paralleling the great pipe line that carries oil from the fields of Baku on the Casplan to the ports on the Black Sea, the routes running southward from Tiflis to Kars and Erivan In Armenia, and the trunk line extending from Baku along the shores of the Caspian Sea to North Caucasla and Rostov on the sea of Azof. There are four "military highways," great engineering achievements, crossing the Caucasus Mountains as a connection between northern and trans-Caucasia, The princlp.1 commercial communications with the outside world are by sea from the pert of Baku on the Caspian and Potl and Datum on the Black Sea. The bulk of Georgia's manga. nese output and large quantities of Azerbaijan's oil products in the past were shipped through the Black Sea ports. Batum is of great Importance for transit to and from Persia. Under normal conditions this port Is assured a still greater commercial .ndpolitical future, as It Is the main link of traffic between the Near East and Europe. This is not lost sight of by the European powers.
BARU OIL FMIDS
The territory of Azerbaijan has untold wealth In the great Baku oil fields, potentially having an output of $400,000,000 in value annually, and actually achieving a maximum of 10,000,000 tons of oil In one year. Farming, as in Georgia and the other Caucasian States, is the chief occupation of the population, aside from the laboring class who operated the oil field, now, however, widely scattered, due to the almost complete paralysis of the Industry.
NATIONAL
REPUBLIO OF GEORGIA
Armenia is almost entirely devoid of mineral riches. The backbone of Its economic life, besides agriculture, is cattle breeding, for which an ideal opportualty Is provided by the vast pastures of the high table-land around Mount Ararat. The torrent 0L the war and postwar period, however, has left only scant remaindere of the former agricultural wealth. All the world has been hlformed and has contributed to the relief of its stricken people. North Caucasl possesses the great Grosny oil fields, a comparatively new development,, the output of which Is valued at approximately $100,000,000 a year. There are also large areas devoted to agrlh ulture and cathie raising. Its vast forests of valuable woods have hardly been touched.
008NY OL YR1LD8
-The practically unlimited wealth of the Caucasus is vested in the national governments, aside from the immense industrial investment of foreign capital. now Inoperative under Moscow's Bolshevik Invasion. The attempts of groups of business men to regain their properties and operate them, and of others to secure ;oncesslons from Soviet Moscow, have not proved feasible or workable, due to the well-known doctrines and demands of the communistic government.
SIUMLAR TO SITUATION O B T & GOVERNMENT DURING THE WAR
IX. The situation of the Caucasian Republics is analogous to that of Belgium during the Great War. They are overrun by a military force which they are not yet strong enough to eject. Their governments are compelled to take refuge in France, as was the Belgian Government, and as other government in times of duress have been obliged to seek temporary hospitality In foreign friendly countries. But this exigency did not Impair their constitutional rights or International status. No European power has recognized the sovereignty of Soviet Russia In the Caucasian Republics. The sovereign status of the Government of the Republic of Georgia Is provided for In Its constitution and preserved In an emergency, as Its powers are vested in the existing representatives during the period of their Inability to function In their own country. All coustitutlonal parties of the Georgian people are represented in a "committee of Independence" to demonstrate their rejection of the soviet rule in their country and to signalize their support of the exiled Government. . In Paris the Georgian Government officials met and convened with the representatives of the other republics of the Caucasus that had been similarly invaded and overwhelmed by the red army. In a Joint declaration of June 10, 1921, the existing high officials and delegates. of the four Caucasian Republics, Iluding the heads oft he delegations from Armenia, Azerbaijan, northern CAtucasus, and the minister to France for Georgia, entered Into a defensive and economic union. The declaration was sent to all the great powers and the League of Nations, which body protested against Soviet Russia's oppression of these small nations. Says this declaration: "Believing that the moral and political cooperation of the powers Is assured fo the cause of the Independence of the Caucasian Republics, already recognized by several international acts, the governments of the aforesaid republics will endeavor to strengthen by their common efforts their political, commercial, and Industrial relations with foreign states and to establish conditions suitable for facilitating the cooperation of foreign capital for the development of the natural rlchss of Caucasia.
"CAUCASLAN NATIONAl, GOVERNMENTS IN A CONFMDJRATION
"The representatives of the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Northern Caucasus, and Georgia, firmly convinced of the neeesp'lty for the union of the Independent Republics of the Caucasus, for the maintenance of order and peace in the Near East, declare that it will not be possible to attain the alms held In view of the respective states unless the neighboring powers respect the political independence as well as the territorial integrity of the aforesaid ]Republics; they declare In addition that the occupation In 1919, 1920, and 1921 by the armed forces of Russia of the territories of these Republics constitutes a flagrant violation of their rights and is a source of future disturbance, and
NATIONAL REPIubO O GEORGIA
297
that all means of diplomatic action should bR employed in order to put an end to this Illegal occupation and to reestablish order as soon as possible. "The representatives of the Caucasian Republics declare that all the treaties and arrangements concerning the cesslons of territories and Imposed on the Caucasian States by the neighboring powers, as well as all privileges or concessions granted to anyone in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Northern Caucasia, and Georgia by authorities, groups, or organizations which have not Issued from the freely expressed will of tho peoples of theee Republic3, are deprived of all legal value and will be considered as null and void."
FORMAL PROTET TO TEM LEAGUE OF NATIONS
A formal protest on behalf, of the Caucasian lepublics was submitted to the Council of the League of Nations. It emphasized the fundamental diversity of Russia and Caucasa, pointing out that the latter Is a homogeneous organism different from Russia as a geographic, ethnographic, economic, and political unity, and that for centuries the regions of the Caucasus have been Inhabited by native peoples, Armenians, AzerbaiJanans, Circassians, and Georgians, who have nothing In common with the Slavic race in language, custom, or t-afitlons.'
HOLD STATE AND PRIVATE PROPERTY INVIOLABLE
The unchangeable attitude of the national Government of Georgia toward concessions on state and private property was reiterated in a statement, Issued In the name of the Georgian people by the Georgian ambassador to France, Tschenkelli, to the Marquis of Crewe, ambassador of Great Britain to France, April 18, 1924. It sets forth that "every concession, every privilege, or other material advantages granted by the Russian Government and by Its agents at Tiflis to foreigners, among others, to Ri.ussians, In Georgia and at the expense of the Georgian people shall be considered by this latter and by Its Gove'ament as null and void." This statement further declares that "the Soviet Russian Government and Its foreign representatives base all their economic and financial parleys almost exclusively on the inexhaustible wealth of the Caucasus. There Is no center of Importance in Europe, nor even In America, where the agents of Moscow have not solicited bids for concessions of petroleum fields, manganese mines, brass, coal, etc., of Caucasla. After having treacherously violated the liberty and Independence of the peoples of Caucasla, the Russian Government Is striving to obtain the support of foreign capitalists at the expense of these people." This communication closes with the following declaration: "In consequene I declare again before the civilized world that the people of Georgia can not con~tder themselves bound by political or economic acts, or any other signed order, In opposition to their rights by the Russian Government or by Its agents."
ECONOMIC LIFE jOF BAKU PARALYZED
Devoid of the required ability and technical skill or economic policy necessary to develop the natural wealth of the Caucasus, and Incapable of successfully operating the "nationalized" property of foreigners, the soviets have brought chaos and ruin to the commercial and Industrial life of Caucasla. A recent Associated Press dispatch from Baku gives a graphic picture of the paralyzed commercial life of that large city and the great oil fields. "Only a small percentage of them are in actual operation," it states, and continues, "the great wooden derricks and the pumps, compressors, and drills on the remaining walls are fast falling Into decay. It is as if a great storm had suddenly visited a primeval forest, stripping the trees of their limbs and roots, and leaving ruin and desolation In Its wake."
IThe Importance of Caucasla for the world business and the rehabilitation of Europe was summed up as follows: "As a market place of considerable importance for the importation of products of all kinds (technical material, chemical products. textiles, etc.), and as a trade route of the highest Importance between Europe and Asia. Cancasia will undoubtedly be a great market for the industrial products of Europe. At the same time by the riches of its subsoil in petroleum, manganese, copper. coal, and other ores, by its forests, by its production of cotton, wool. sIlk. tobacco, etc., Cautasla represents one of the most Important sources of raw materials for the Industries of Europe."
298
NATIONAL REPUBUO Oh' GEIOIA
"At a distance the Idle, decaying derricks, which cov'tit an area of 60,000 acres, resemble a vast cemetery of conical toflbstones. Scarcely a vapor of moke issues from the blackened walls of the neighboring refineries to give the sombre pleture any form of animation. Only here and there does one see a workman. The Interminable rows of small wooden houses, which Is czarist days housed the teas of thousands of employees, have degenerated Into wretched hovels, for the most part deserted and ruined. The roads leading from the city are In a deplorable state, and it Is positive punishment to traverse them even in a cushioned automobile." This stagnation Is due to the soviets' lack of capital, modern machinery, and technical skill to develop the oil fields, which Were taken over by the state soon after the seizure of Baku by the Bolsheviks In April, 120.
TUC " DRAD " PC 01P BATUM AND POT
The other extremity of the Isthmus at the once teeming ports of Baku and Poti, on the Black 3ea, the picture Is the same. In pre-war days these busy entrepots of trade were visited by the fleets of world commerce that carried the huge stream of oil from the Transcaucasian pipe lines and the hundreds of thousands of tons of maL'ganese ore from the mines of Chiatur). Splendid piers and docks, great steam-propelled cranes, and net works of truckage, yet Insufficlent for the demands of the enormous export, hummed with the traffic of Industry. To-day the harbors are filled with dead ships, the cranes and rails are rusting or looted, and commerce Is only carried on In a desultory, primitive way. Labor has sought other fields. Capital has fled, and the great export traffic that once crossed the isthmus and dlsbearg0d Itbelf to Europe and America Is negligible.
"eOrVIrTZlNGO" flIOION
X. All the world knows the story of the antireligious war In Soviet Russia. The blighting hand of atheistic communism has swept over the Caucasus. The soviet rule has played no favorite. Libels on religious orthodoxy have extended to every faith. Cartoons of God and saint of every sect have been paraded through the streets. Priests and laymen have been Imprisoned and executed on trumped-up charges of counter-revolutionary acts. The church and religious edifices have been brought under the control of the Red Church and turned over to secular entertainment, dances, theatrical performances, moving pictures. Bolshevist priests and bishops have been Installed, irrespective of their former status or appointments by constituted church authorities, and Bolshevik godliness has been "blessed" and sanctioned, and Imposed. There Is no free church, no freedom of religion In Russia, or the Caucasus, as known to the religious world. The orthodox, Protestant, Mohammedan, Jew, alike come under the ban. Religious observance, teaching or thinking Is "counter-revolutionary" and denied to the youth of the nation. There is no God in the soviet doctrine.
NO RELIGOoUS INTOLERANCE
While the people of the Caucasus are ethnologically of different races, they are inseparably bound by economic and political interests and geographical isolation. They have no affinities with Soviet Russia and Its communistic state. The Christian population of Georgia and Armenia had long ceased to be antagonistic to the Mohammedan peoples of AzerbaiJan and north Caucasla. The Christian faith was tolerated in Mohammedan territory and thb worship of Islam was undisturbed In the Christian Republics. The church and the state had been divorced by the progressive people of the Caucqsian democracies. Religious persecutions and intolerance, once the bane of the Near East, no longer entered Into the political or economic life of the allied republics, and until the Bolshevist dictators from Moscow came and crushed out the freedom of worship, there survived no religious question. The schools and colleges and the political life of these little nations were free of class and sectarian controversies, Catholic, Protestant, Mohammedan, and Jew were free to follow their own spiritual convictions, worship In their own edifices, and not disPrIminated against in any phase of activity, public or private.

THU ANONNT O RGIAN HUNCH
209
In Tiflis, the metropolis of the Caucasus, was the seat of the Georgian Churcb, one of th8 most ancient eastern Christian churches In the world. It was second to the Greek Orthodox Church In antiquity. The head of the church is the cathollcos-patriarch, still imprisoeed by the Bolsheviks. The ancient cathedral and throne of the catholicos is at Mtsketha (former capital of Georgia until the fifth century) near Tiflls. The Georgian Church was Independent from the state, Its funds and properties were administered by the laymen's committee, and the clergy elected by the parishes.
CULTURAL CONDITIONS
The capital of Georgia was the educational and literary, as well as the commercial and social center of the Caucagians. Many Georgian societies had their head offices there, among them the Georgian Library Society, with Its 35 branches and 20,000 members; also historical ethnographical and geographical societies, and many others. Tbe Georgian University at Tiflis had 35 professors and 2,000 students, while a consherable number of Georgians studiedT abroad, especially at the universities In France, Switzerland, and Germany. There was also one other college in Tiflis and one in Kutais, 2 theological colleges, 25 grammar schools, and about, 4,00) so-called people's schools; and also. several agricultural and technical schools.' Ninety per cent of the total population of Georgia can read-and write. There were 24 daily papers and weeklies, and about 350 books In half-million copies published every year. Such was tbe, flourishing condition of the cultural life previous to tke rule of Soviet Moscow.
liT ARE AND A"RT
The nation is rich In ancient and modern literature, known to the world through translations In many lWnguages. In the public library of New York, In the oriental and slavonic rooms, 'are sections devoted to Georgian literature in the native tongue and In French, English, and Russian. The most faous Georgian romance Is Shotha Rusthavell's Man In the Panther's Skin, trans-, lated into English by Marjory' S. Wardrop, a sister of the British commissaoner in Georgia. It Is the great epic by a contemporary of Queen Thamara,o In the twelfth century, and a literary monument to what Is called the " Goldeni Age" of Georgia, an age of splendor and Intellectual progress. Many anciertt fairy tales are of Georgian origin, now Included In the Grimm library of Georgian folk tales, and well known to the children Of all lands, and found In American homes and libraries. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, has examples of early Caucasian bronzes; the Morgan collection includes rare specimens of Georgian archaeology.
HOT" SF51505
To middle Europe and Russia, Tiflis I Is the "hot springs" of the Caucats.Its private and public sulphur baths and Its salubrious climate attract tem oe thousands between September and May. The curative waters of Georgia etre not restricted to the capital. Millions of gallons from the health-giving spnJ3' in Georgia and north C ncasla were bottled annually and sent to Europe Aho America, In pre-war days. Tiflis was 'the social and business M+cca of tber middle east, second' only to Constantinople, and one of tlie richest cities of the Russian Imperial domains. The capital was supplied by hydroelectric power, had wide, well-paved avenues, tram cars, telephones-in fact, with 400,000 population, mostly Georgians of the Caucasian race, was' an up-to-date metropolis of magnificent houses and edifices comparable with any large European city. Its picturesque streets rise In terraces from the River Kura to the slopes of Mount David, which Is over 2,000 feet above the sea level, and Is reached by a cable railway. On Mount David are built beautiful summer houses, large hotels and caf -- a retreat from the almost tropical heat of midsummer. Among the city's attractions are thepublic parks and the botanical gardens. There are numerous schools, a con-. servatory of music, a Caucasian museum, a railroad Institute, a sericultural ' The word, " TIfls" Is derived from the Georgian "tbills "-source of warmth.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OZOI90TA

station, and a physical observatory. In pre-war days there were extensive leather, tobacco, and cotton-spinning factories In the city. Before Bolshevism reigned, with Its hunger, misery, and Its sullen silence .and everlasting fear, its suppression of all freedom of speech and the pres.. Its denunciations, arbitrary trials and executions. Its brutality and terror. Tiffis was the haven of the refugees, the workers and peasants, the Intelligentsia and the bourgeille, who fled from the bell of Bolshevism in Russia to the protection of independent Georgia and Its abode of law and Justice. THU SOUL OF NATIONAL SUaVIVUS
To-day the torch of liberty flickers in the Republics of the Caucauq. but the soul of nationality and the reverence for religion survive. The peoples of the Caucasus are implacable foes of Bolshevism. and its twin fury, communism, but the arm of the murderous Cheka holds them In bondage. As long as the bayonet of Soviet Russia Is premed to their hearts they mnt bow to the dictatorship of Moscow, and submit to the Impositlonp of a military terrorism, or become the victims of the torture chamber, banishment, and death.
PAus, January 27, 1901. To His Excellency M. GUKoUKTCKoUT, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republo of Georgia, Part. Mr. Mirtxrajs: After having taken cognizance of the decision by which the supreme council, under date of January 26. has resolved to reeonlze de Jure the independence of Oeo;gia, as soon as this country should formally express the desire, you undertook, by letter of January 27, to address to me the official request of the Government and the people of Georgia to become recognized de jure by the allied powers. I hastened to communicate your letter to the conference; this latter was unanimous in deciding to recognize de Jure the Georgian Government. The allied powers are happy to be able to prove thus anew the sympathy with which they hayfollowed the. efforts of the Georgian iople towi rd independence and the admiration inspired in them by the work it has already accom-
pitshed.
Be pleased to accept, Mr. Minister, the assurance of my highest regard. BJrIAND.
Titus, January 1.0, 1920. Yous ExcnuzraT: I have the honor to inform you that Lord Curzon desires me to make known to you that yesterday he took upon blmqelf the initiative of proposing to the supreme council of the Allies the recognition de facto of the Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan. This proposal was accepted unanimously, avd with the agreement of the Govesments of France and Italy. It is not necessary to tell you with what great satisfaction I communicate the preceding facts to the Georgian Government. As concerning our Armenian friends, the question of their recognition is closely bound up with the future peace treaty with Turkey. To Monsieur E. GumurrcHKoil, Minister for Foreign Affaire of the Georgfan Republio. TIL!s, January 19, 1920. Youa ExczL~mqcv: I have just now received a radiotelegraph from the Royal Government of Italy, by which I am informed that at a meeting of the supreme council, on the 11th of the current month, It was decided that the principal allied and associated powers collectively recognized the Governments of Georgia and Azerbaijan as governments de facto.
301
Whilst transmitting the decision of the supreme council In its exact terms, I am very happy to have the opportunity of once more expressing my sincere congratulations and my best wishes for the future of the Georgian Republic. Receive, Your Excellency, the assurance of my profound consideration. GADDA, Oolonel on the General Staff, CA.f of the Italian w!ilitary Mission in the 0aucasus. To HIs Exceizency Monsieur E. GuEoEraH&Mu, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Repullio of Georgia. FTnmus, January 18, 1920. Mowsixa Lz Mxuijara: I have the honor to transmit to you the copy herm with annexed of a telegram received from my Government this morning. I beg you on this occasion to accept my warm congratulations. Receive, Monsieur le Ministre, the assurance of my profound consideration.
1E.D3I NONANCOUMM,
Thief of the French Military Misson in the To Monsieur E. Guzozrrciou, Minister for Foreign Affairs. aucasu.
(Telegram received from Paris
JANUARY 18, 1020. The council of ministers for foreign affairs of the allied powers decided, on the 6th of January to recognize Georgia and AzeroMiJau as de facto Govern. ments.
QUAI DORBAY, PARIS, February 7, 1920.
The ecretariat general of the peace conference has the honor to make known to the president of the Georgian delegation that the Japanese Government have just now notified to them that they associate themselves with the measure by which the British, French, and Italian Governments recognize the Georgian Government as a government de facto.
The PRESIDENT or TIlE GEoRGIAN DELEOATIOx.
The constituent assembly of Georgia, elected by citizens of both sexes, according to the direct, equal, universal, secret and proportional electoral system, at its first sitting of March 12, 1919. proclaims before the world and history, that it fully confirms and approves the act of the Independence of Georgia, declared at Tiflis by the Georgian National Council, May 20, 1918,
AOT OF THE INDZPENDENCE OF OEORGIA
For several centuries Georgia existed as a free and Independent State. At the end of the eighteenth century, Georgia voluntarily allied herself with Russia, with the stipulation that the latter should protect her against enemies from without. In the course of the great Russian revolution, conditions arose which resulted In the disorganization of the entire military front and the abandonment of Transcaucasia by the Russian armies. Thus, left to their own devices, Georgia, and with her all Transcaucasia, took Into their bands the direction of their affairs, creating the necessary organs for this purpose; but under pressure from exterior forces the links which united Transcaucaslan nationalities were broken and the political unity of Transcaucasia was thus dissolved. The present position of the Georgian nation makes It Imperatively necessary that Georgia should create a political organization of her own In order that
8M
Sb. May
649M Uou
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF JEOROIA. the yobe of her enemea and lay a soi foundation for
of Georga on November 22 (D ember 5), 1917, declares: 1. In future the Georgian people will hold sovereign power, and Georgia will be a State enjoying all the rights of a free and independent state. . dependent Georgia's form of political organization will be a democratic republic. 8. In case of International conflicts, Georgia will always remain neutral. 4. The Georgian democratic Republic will apply Itself to establishing friendly relations with all nations, and especially with neighboring nationalities and States. 5. The democratic Georgian Republic guarantees to all citizens within its territory oil civil nd political rights without dqinection of nationality, religion, or Waton, sex. social p 6. The democratic Gorian Republic offers to all inhabitants of Its territory a Wide ie14 for free development 7. Until tb covocation of the constituent assembly, the National Cooncil, with the *4ditiou of representatives of the minorities and the provisional government responsible to the National Council, ,s at the bead of all Georgian admInstration.
Ivr bree 4evolopuest. 40AWOcrdli, the Georgian National Co tvncl, tlected by the National Assembly
APPENDIX NO. 14
CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENT8 OF GEORoA
About seventeenth century B. C. Togarmah (Genesis, Chap. X, 3), forefather of the Iberians (Georgians, Karthavelians) who emigrated from Asia Minor and appear as far back as the fifteenth century B. C. In the Caucasus. Twelfth century B. C. Commercial relations of the Phoeneolans with the Voyage of the Argonauts to Colchians (inhabitants of western Georgia). ancient Colchia In search of the "Folden Fleece," the mineral riches of the Caucasus. Eighth and tenth centuries B. C. Early Greek colonies on Georgia's Black Sea coast. Beginning of Georgian alphabet. (Sxamples of Georgian lettaq and writings of these centuries now In existence.) 823 B. C. Conquest of Georgia by the troops of. Alexander the Great, of Macedonia. .of third century B. C. Downfall of the Macedonians. PharBeginning nawaz first national king In Georgia. Iberian tribes molded into Georgian nation. Cultural development; Improvement of Georgian alphabet and growth of reading and writing. 653B. 0. Conquest of Georgia by the Romans. Pompey reaches foot of Caucasus Mountains. * First and second centuries A. D. Roman suzerainty over Georgia, temporarily challenged by the Parthians. Fourth century A. D. Introduction of Christianity under King Mirian through efforts of St. Nino. Milsslonaries sent by Emperor Constantine. First translation of Bible into Georgian. Fifth century. Spreading of Christianity by Syrian fathers. Religious enthuslasm-; building of churches. in Georgia aW of Georgian .monasteries in Jerusalem, Syria, etc. 44G-499. King Vaktang Gurgaslan; Capital, TUlis, founded. 71. Guram, founder of Begratid dynasty (ruling .unttl 1801), nomilnatQ4 by Byzantine Emperor as King ef Georgia, Georgia under influence of Green culture. Seventh to ninth centuries. Arab conquest of central Georgia. First clash with Islam. Arab Emir ruler lrinTifils. Western Georgia (Abkbasla) ludependeat. Eighth century. Georgian Church (Greek rite) is granted autoeephaly; L e, hierarchical Independence from all other ecclesiastical authority. National church stimulates national feelings and enables nation to survive almost con. tinual struggles against non-Christian neighbors and cruel persecutions by Mohammedans. Ninth century. Gradual decay of Arab power. Georgia under David I Ouropalates, vassal of Byzantium. Tenth century. Georgia as Byzantine province In bulwark against foes Christianity. of 1048-1064.Invasion. of Seljuk Turks. Second phase in fierce struggle against Islam. 1099-1125. King David II the restorer; reconstructs country devastated bi the Turks; restores independence during the time of the Crusades. 1184-1212. Reign of Queen Thamara, "Golden Age" of Georgia. Climax of political power; establishment of Trebizond Empire; greatest achievements of 1230. Invasion of Ghenghlz Khan, greatest enemy of Christianity. Georgia frightfully devastated. *1365. Gcorgian armies save Europe from Mongol invasion. 1386-1393-1894. Incursions of Mongols under Tamarlane strike death blow to Georgian power and prosperity. 303
culture.

Fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. Endless struggles of Persia and Turkey for hegemony In Georgia. Western Georgia comes under Turkish, eastern Georgia under Persian influence. Attempts of Georgian princes to secure aid In Russia, as the only neighboring Christian nation, against Mohammedans. Eighteenth century. Cultural renaissance under King Vaktang VI of Kak. hetia. Restoration of political power under Irakly II, King of Kakheta and Karthalinia (central and eastern Georgia). 1783. Treaty of Irakly with Catherine II of Russia. Russia assumes duties of a protector in Georgia. 1795. Invasion of the Persians. Tiffis conquered and sacked. Russians remain passive. . 1801. Georgia forcibly annexed by Russia under violation of treaty. Au. tocephaly of Georgian Church abolished. England and France protest in vain. 1887. Construction of Batum-Tiftis railway begun. 1883. Transcaucasian Railway (Batum to Baku) completed. 191& Tchlaturl (Georgia) manganese ore production reaches 1,000,000 tons, covering almost one-half of the world's needs. 1914. Georgia, with Its 8,000,000 inhabitants, sends 145,000 regulars and 50,000 volunteers to fight with the Allies. 1917. March: Russian revolution; Transcaucasia administered by special high commissioner; autocephaly of Georgian Church reinstated. October, November: Bolshevik uprising successful In Russia; Transcaucasia under rule of anti-Bolshevik commissariat, comprising principal nationalities (Georgians, Armenians, Tartars) ; Georgian National Congress; Republic of North Caucasia proclaimed. 1918. Transcaucasia refuses to participate In Brest-Litovsk peace negotiations. April: Independence of Transcaucasla proclaimed. May: The Republics of Georgia (capital, Tiflis), Armenia (capital, Erivan), and Azerbaldjan (capital, Baku) declare separate Independence. November: British occupation. 1919. Act of Independence of Georgia confirmed by elected constituent assembly. Georgia urges cooperation among Transcaucaslan republics; GeorgianAzerbaidjaulan defensive alliance. British evacuate Transcaucasia except Batum. General Harbord recommends a United States mandate over Transcaucasia. 1920. Great powers of Europe, Japan, and the Argentine recognize de facto Independence of Transcaucasian republics. Soviet Russia by treaty recognizes independent sovereignty of Georgia Republic. British exacuate Batum. Armenia recognized by the United States. April: Bolsheviks seize Baku and set up soviet government in Aserbaidjan. December: Armenia occupied by Moscow Bolsheviks. 1921. After de facto recognition, Georgia is recognized de Jure by the great powers of Europe. February, March: Soviet Russia violates treaty and In. vades Georgia; the Georgian Government retires to Batum; accepts hospitality of France and goes to Paris; Soviet Russia seizes Republic of Georga and Imposes communistic dictatorship from Moscow; loots the ispital, closes the churches, massacres and exiles 20,000 Georgians; declaration of Transcaucasian republics In Paris -protesting to the great powers; Leagre of Nations counsels Intervention. June: Declaration of alliance of Caucas'an 'republics In Paris. 1922. Georgian Soviet, agent refused' at Genoa conference; Patriarch Ambroslus, head of Georgian Church, arrested for sending protest against Bolshevik horrors to conference at Genoa. September 22: Third asserlbl) %f League of Nations adopts following resolution with reference to Georgia: "The assembly Invites the council to follow attentively the course of e'Vents In this part of the world so that It may be able to seize any opportunity which may occur to help In the restoration of th!s country to norm,.d conditions by aly peaceful means In accordance with the rules of international law." 1923. Soviet Russia maintains a mock "repvbIlle" over Georgia. Holds AeerbaidJan, Georgia, Armenia, and North Caucia.sla by quartering in the Caucasus Russian troops. July 0: Soviet constitutloa quotes right of all peoples te freely withdraw from union. 1924. Assembly of League of Nations reiterates resolution with reference to Georgia pased In 1922; Soviet Russia attempts to sell out concessions of manganese and oil rights In Europe; falls; negotiates with American capitalists; recognition of Soviet Ru.sia by France and Great Britain does not Imply
305
recognition of annexation of Georgia; both countries make exceptions is to soviet rule in Georgia. March: Patriach Ambroslus sentenced to nine years' imprisonment. October: Georgian committee of indepeLdence appeals to league of Nations and attempts to withdraw from soviet unioL, by right of clause in soviet constitution; attempt crushed out by soviets as revolt; more than 20,000 killed, banished, and Imprisoned. Freedom crushed out by the red army; Metropolitan (Archbishop) Nazari murdered by communists; the Cheka rules. 192. Moscow government sells concession of Georgian manganese to Harrimat, interests as a bait for recognition. Georgian national government protests validity of titles. Religious worship and education other than communism prohibited by soviet dictatorship.
APPENDIX NO.- 15 [Telegram)
Sc resary of B!ate, Waulingto D. 0.: While acknowledging that I have no diplomatic status in America, yet as the delegated representative of the Georgian National Government, now sitting In Paris and driven by force-majeure from its rightful seat at Tiflis, may I respectfully ask permission to file with you this notification of protest at the action of the usurping Bolshevik Soviet Government In Moscow in entering into a contract with W. A. Harriman & Co., of New York, to deliver to said company the Georgian manganese mines and concessions which are owned by the people of Georgia and private Individuals receiving their title from my Government, and to state most respectfully to you, sir, that my Government will not recognize the legality of such proceeding, and may I further state that the present superimposed Communistic Soviet Government of Georgia is not representative of the people of Georgia nor elected or consented to by them, and that their alleged acceptance of the granting of concessions in Georgia by the Moscow Soviets to the firm of Harriman or any other firm is a hideous mockery and a wholly Illegal assumption. I beg to remain your most obedient servant. VAsri D. DUMBADZE, General Diplomatio and Economfo Representative of the Republics of Georgfa and AzerbaidJan. 808
Hon. FRANK M. KuXoo,
JUNE 13, 1925.
APPENDIX NO. 10
XCEBTs FOM THE SPEECH DY HON. EDWARo C. LITTLE, OF KANSAS, IN T11
HouSa Or REPBESzNTATiVEn, ATION OF ABMRNIA
WEONESDAY, DzczMssa 17, 1921, ON THE SiU-
ICongrtslonal Record, Vol. LXil, Pt. 181 (Page 18702, fourth paragraph:) After the Russian collapse of November, the people of Transcaucasia, Armenians, Georgians, and Tartars, proceeded to organize at the great city of Tflis (Georgia), In February, 1918, a provisional government which governed Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and organized in February, 1918, as such provisional government. On the 22d day of April, 1918, this Transcaucasian Parliament declared their independence and conducted affairs for some five weeks, when, friction arlsing, they separated and each declared its own independence, the Armenians, as aforesaid, May 28, 1918. The difficulty was that the Tartars, being Moslems, were determined to assist the Turks, and the Armenians (and likewise the Georgians) declined to accede to any suelh arrangement and were determined to assist our allies In their fight against Germany, Austria, and Turkey. (rage 13702, second column, second paragraph:) During the same time (referring to the fighting between the Armenians and the Turks during the summer of 1918), Georgia was free, governing itsself and the Tartars of AzerbaidJan, with their capital at Baku, after Bagratouni (the Armenian general) withdrew and the Turks finally left. (Page 13703, second column, first paragraph:) In December, 1920, the Bolshevik Army began to stream into Caucasus, and the Turks contemporaneously seized Kars and Alexandropol, and the Armenians were over. whelmed. The Soviet Republic was established In Armenia and Is still in possession, June 22, 1922. Russia and Turkey both recognize It (Armenia) as independent. (Page 13703, second column, third paragraph:) The time has come when the American Republic should take its place at the council table of the nations and seek enforcement of the decrees its soldiers registered on the battle fields of France. The judicious and timely insistence by our State Department upon the release of American prisoners In Moscow and that concession by the Russians has opened the door to vast possibilities. America should now definitely inform Russia that before our Republic opens up negotiations of friendly relations, Russia should show her respect for the rights of other nations by with: drawing her Invading troops from Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaidjan, and Daghestan (North Caucasia). Then those peoples will reestablish their local govern. ments and law and order will be maintained there, and the United States should promptly recognize its sister and allied Republic of Armenia, send a minister to Erivan. and receive one here.
307
Map of Georgia and the Caucasit
RepubUcs
APPENDIX NO. 18 THE CASE OF GEOROIA AND INTERNATIONAL LAW In International Law, by Charles 0. Fenwick, professor of political science at Bryn Mawr College, author of the Neutrality Laws of the United States, Political Systems In Transition, etc., Mr. Fenwick says, in respect of the-many interventions which have taken place in the history of Europe, that "it Is worthy of note that the guaranties given by the states recently admitted Into the family of nations, looking to the protection of racial minorities within their national boundaries, promise to remove in large part the grounds for interventions"; I. e., interventions in respect of Turkish methods of suppressing the rebellion in Greece in 1827, the move to protect the Christians of Mount Lebanon in 1860, or in 1878 to secure the deliverance of the Balkan States, or In 1891-1890. following massacres in Armenia and Crete. "To the same general principle must be referred," says Professor Fenwick, "such minor diplomatic interventions and official expressions of opinion as are exemplified in the refusal of the United States to renew the commercial treaty with Russia, upon its expiration in 1913, pending assurances from that GoT .rnment of fairer treatment of its Jewish population; or, again, the resolutior adopted by both Senate and House of Representatives of the United States In 1019 expressing sympathy with the desire of the Irish people for a government of their own choice." Says Professor Fenwick in a footnote in reference to this paragraph: "It was freely asserted by publicists at the time that the Irish question was a 'domestic problem' which Great Britain should be left free to handle in its own way. But it may be questioned whether, in view of international precedents, any problem can in point of law be considered as purely ' domestic' when as a matter of fact the methods resorted to for Its solution actually disturb the domestic peace of another country. Whether such interventions are morally Justified by the particular circumstances is a point outside the sphere of positive international law, each nation in such cases being the Judge of its own rights."
IN RE RECOONITION OF TEXAS
On December 21, 1836, President Andrew Jackson, in a message to the Congress, has this to say in regard to the proposal to recognize the independence of Texas, the status of which was not dissimilar to that of the Greeks in lb21-1829 nor yet wholly unlike the present status of Georgia: "* * * that the two Houses at their last session, acting separately, passed resolutions 'that the independence of Texas ought to be acknowledged by the United States whenever satisfactory information should be received that it had in successful operation a civil government capable of performing the duties and flflling the obligations of an independent power.'" President Jackson follows this with a commentary to the effect that care should be taken in prematurely recognizing a state which had formerly formed an integral part of another country, lest var should follow, etc. This dictum could not apply to Georgia, for Georgia has never been an "integral" part of Russia. But the situation of Georgia, in its relationship with the Joint resolution of Mr. Representative Moore of Virginia and Mr. Senator Copeland, of New York, is not analogous to that of Texas in this respect, for war did not follow the recognition of Georgia by England, France, Germany, Japan, Italy, the Argentine, etc.; nor, again, does the Moore-Copeland resolution recognize the independence of Georgia but provides only that the President of the United States may appoint a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia whenever he should deem it expedient to make such appointment. Even with close regard to what may be deemed to be the strict letter of the theory bf international law, yet it certainly must be admitted that in the
to
a 0
rp.
Map of GworsU sm the surromding territory
NATIONAL REPUBIA0 OF 02=0IA practice of it under the broad spirit of its Innumerable precedents the Congress of the United States might Justifiably upon grounds of Its own arbi. trary choosing establish its own precedents based on the habitual moral attitude of the native American peoples In all such cases, and hence give to the National Republic of Georgia that species of recognition such as is contained in the Moore-Copelar -1 resolution. It seems clear to me that In the matter of the Moore-Copeland resolutlom there is less a legal than a moral question involved, which is Just this, Have the American people of the States of the Union in their relationships with other peoples followed the urge and impulse of their own conscience, pouring out their sympathy with, giving of their wealth to, and unoffielally lending their sons in aid of other peoples fighting for liberty and Independence? Have not they consistently always, privately, publicly, and through the expression of the Congress or of legislatures of the respective States, given through their words, their gifts, and their deeds, Irrefutable evidence of their sympathy witi and adherence to the basic principle of this Republic, wherever and whenever applied by other peoples similarly situated to ourselves in 1176? In regard to all peoples, powerful and weak, who have given evidence of a high capacity'for self-government, bAve we not consistently demonstrated in our aets of s.mpathy with them our unswerving loyalty to our own declaration that, men are bon with certain unalienable rights, and among these the rights of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"? It seems to me that the major question involved in such provisional recogn!i tion as would be given Georgia in the Bloore-Copeland resolutoin.is whether the Georgians have sufficiently establishedothemselves by their outlook on Iffe their own particular and peculiar way of doing things, their Institutions, toelf laws, their language, their high culture, their high record of literacy, such capacity for self-government as to make them worthy that such a joint resoltttion as that drafted and presented for consideration by Mr. Moore and by Mr. Copeland should receive the approval of the Congress? Finally, to quote Prof. Charles G. Fenwick, who In his particular conception of International law follows closely the authority of Mr. John Bassett Moore: . "The definition (' international law') expresses, therefore, the positive conception of the law as a body of rules, including both general principles of conduct and concrete regulations, to which the nations can be said to hsv4 given their adherence as judged by their public declarations and their daily practice. "But if moral standards, as belonging to the science of ethics rather than 1-at of law, must be kept distinct from rules actually observed, It must not be inferred that the rules of International law, when definitely ascertained, are not to be tested as to their conformity with the generally accepted principles of justice. International law Is confessedly a defective system of securing Justice among the nations when compared %Ith the legal systems in force within the more civilized states. It can be improved and developed only through a more effective organization of the nations and a more equitable ad, justment of their respective claims than has as yet been attained. In determining the form of this better organization and the methods of this adjust. meant statesmen must necessarily be guided by comparisons between the rules of International law and the principles of Justice prevailing within the individual states." The theory and generally the practice of international law give recognition to the sanctity of contract between states. If the letter and spirit of Inernational law were wantonly disregarded when Germany invaded Belgium, then must it not follow that Bolshevik Russia stands equally guilty with Germany, when after having recognized the independence of the National Republic of Georgia she wantonly and wickedly, without previous declaration, by her acts and not by her words, made likewise a "scrap of paper" of her constitutional guaranty to Georgia of her right to independence and self-government? Are there not ample legal and moral precedents for the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the House of Representatives to follow in the case of the National Republic of Georgia? Respectfully submitted. Jom, A. STxwAuT.
NATIONAL REPUBLIO Or OEoIA OW1oooCAL SUMMAZY OF THn SITUATION IN Gxcu, 1821-1829, IN LieHT o0 THU W=sTs RESOLUTION or Dzxoxms 8, 1828 [Reference: Historians' History of the World, vol. 24, 1821. Greek war for Independence breaks out. 182 Greece proclaims herself Independent; civil conflict among the Greeks in consequence of which at the battle of Janina the Greeks were badly *. defeated; Morea is invaded by the Turks. IS=. Greek civil conflicts result in civil war, which lasts until 1824, Turks regaining strong control. 1824. Another civil war breaks out among Greek forces called "War of the Primates." 1825. Mehmet All,of Egypt, Invades Greece successfully; siege of Mlssolonghl. 1828. Mlssolonghl falls. 182. Athens captured by the Turks and treaty entered into between them and England, France, and Russia for pacification of Greece. 1829. Capo d'Istria appointed President for seven years. Protocol at London makes Greece hereditary monarchy tributory to Turkey. Nor -The Battle of Novarino, 1827, four years after Webster'A resolution, saved Greece. When the French general, Maison, landed In the Morea, Ibrahim sailed for Egypt; so that In October, 1828, the Morea at least was free, and "nothing stood in the way to prevent Greece from establishing an independent government. President Capo d'Istria had entered Greek soil on January 18, 1828. His presidency was a sort of dictatorship; his board of counsellors his own creatures; he limited the power of the press, etc. On March 22, 1829. It was decided by:Englaud, France, and Russia that Greece should form a limited monarchy; that It should reach to the Bays of Ceuta and Vola on the north, but that It should be tributory to Turkey." Greece was not permitted to become wholly Independent until February 3, 1830, seven years after vebster's resolution. "In 1827 Russia, France, and England assumed the r0le of armed arbitrators between the Ottoman Empire and Greece.; Greece at that moment having successfully defeated the Turkish armies sent by Mabmud to reduce her to obedience, had finally succumbed to the Egyptian armies called to the ai! of Islam."
AEOUMENT
To Judge from the above authoritative data, It must be admitted in a spirit of fairness. that the situation In Georgia from 1918 up to date has not been unlike that of Greece. There are areas in the mountains of Georgia, estimated at thousands of square miles, which have never been conquered. Quoting from documents prepared by the Georgian government and submitted to the assemblage of European powers In Geneva in September, 1922: "In certain districts there have been armed risings. In Svanetia, Pachawen, and Khevsurs, for example, the struggle assumed such a character that the, red army was compelled to abandon Its scheme of conquest, and part of the mountainous region remains This situation still continues. The Georgian government sitting In Paris Is and has been In constant communication with Its nationals in these mountain regions, where, as testified to by Mr. Vasili D. Dumbadze, the diplomatic and economic representative of the National Republic of Georgia In the United States, on April 1 of this year, schools, under the orderly processes of local government, are proceeding without Interruption, except when the BoLshevik leaders make their sporadic forays in vain attempts to subject this unconquerable people. Likewise It may be said as a fact that the Georgian government is in constant communication with its people throughout the entire area of Georgia. These practically uninterrupted communications between the Georgian government in Paris and the Georgian people, independent or otherwise, on the territory of Georgia itself, have not been nor are they going on for any revolutionary purpose but only to encourage the people in Georgia patiently to await their hour of deliverance. It must not be understood that grave danger does not lie beside the path which these messengers from Paris must pursue in order to reach contact with
free."
NATIONAL REPUBIIO OF GEORGIA
318
their peoples on the Transcaucaslan Isthmus. It Is sad to have to relate that in 1924, Mr. NoO Khomeriky, minister of agriculture; Mr. Benia Tchikvichvily, mayo of Tiflis; and Mr. Valiko Ghiughell, commander of the national guard, were captured and after the usual farcical Cheka trial were Murdered. What make the case of these martyrs particularly harrowing is that they were sent from Paris by their government not alone to encourage their people to patience but to beg them to commit no overt act that would endanger the lives of innocent people in any futile effort at that time to free themselves from the horrors of the local communist rule. While these Georgian heroes were meeting their death, Rev. Frank Thomas, the celebrated Swiss preacher, was declaring in the hall of the University of Geneva, on the 28th of May, 1924, before a distinguished body of diplomats, jurists, and others that"You have without doubt been moved, like myself, in hearing the description of Georgia as she has become under the Bolshevist political rdgimE, after that which has been given us of Georgia as she was previously. You have been able to get an idea of how the soviets found the means to make of this country, so interesting and so prosperous from every point of view, a veritable desert by reason of their abominable r~gim6. There remains for me but to say a few words about the religious persecutior. "All the tyrants of history know tie immense rOle that religious faith can play among men to preserve or to Testore to them their dignity aud their fiburiy. Therefore when they wish to rid themselves of a people which Is annoying to them by crushing it more surely, they have but to attack its con. science in trying to annihilate It. When the tyrants have still a bit of consideration for those they oppress they leave them at least the liberty of conscience; we know something of this at Geneva, we of whom the ancestors at the time of Napoleon first preserved and developed their energy and their love of liberty by strengthening themselves in our old sanctuary of St. Peter, where their conquerors allowed them to adore God as they wished. The soviets, who are for the most part atheists, are only the more frightened of the Influence of religion and therefore strive the harder everywhere to cut without pity the wings of those whom they w'sh to oppress, after having despoiled them of their possessions. It is the most sure method of putting an end to all opposition by destroying the personalities. "This is what they have done everywhere, and particularly in unfortunate Georgia, of which the church, one of the most ancient in Europe, since it dates back to the fourth century of our era, has always sought to defend its independence, and which has through this love of liberty given to the Georgian people Its so vallent and so courageous soul, which is the admiration of all the world. After having allied herself in the last century to the Orthodox Church of Russia, she took advantage of the Russian revolution and the abolition of the monarchy, of which she was a faithful upholder, to proclaim her independence and press the Georgian people to organize itself Into an Independent republic. From that time on the fury of the soviets was aroused; it was a precious prize which was escaping them; it was necessary at all price to reconquer It. Therefore, without the least respect for the rights of this little nation, numerous troops of the red army Invaded this country, which was thirsting only for liberty. The Georgians resisted vallently, but they were crushed in the most odious fashion; the country was submitted to the yoke of the boishevists, the churches closed or transformed into places of amusement or of debauchery, the priests imprisoned or put to death. "Among these priests there was an exeremely worthy old man, the Metropolitan Ambroslus, who, like all the true Christians, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and he wished to defend those who were under his protection and at the time of the conference of Genoa he wrote, on February 7, 1922, a remarkable letter, in fact and form. in which he allowed his heart and his con. science to speak, to beg the conference to intervene and to restore to his country its liberty. This letter denounced the lie of the soviets, who pretended to have freed Georgia and to have made It happy. "IWe can affirm without exaggeration,' it said, ' that the Incoherent experiences of which the Georgian Nation Is the object will bring it inevitably to physical degeneration and to moral degradation. The people are being pillaged, their mother tongue is being taken from them, their national culture is trampled under foot. Under pretext of liberty and conscience the liberty of worship is abolished, the clergy is persecuted. We demand therefore-
NATIONAL DEPUBIJO OF GBONGIA

"' 1. That the Russian troops of occupation be immediately withdrawn from the territory of Georgia, and that the Georgian Inheritance be guaranteed from all violation, forced protectorship, and foreign depravity. "'2. That the Georglan Nation be given the possibility of freely organizing. Its life as it wishes, in establishing the forms of Its social and political existence which best suit its spirit, its aspirations, its customs, and its national culture.' "The rage of the soviets on hearing of this matter knew no bounds; Ambro. slus was menaced, If he refused to make a retraction, with being broken, imprisoned; the menaces of death were unable to move him. He was put In prison, arraigned before a tribunal for having written this letter, and was condemned to an imprisonment of nine years. On the 19th of March, 1922, the sentence was rendered, and among other things it said this: 'The crimes of Ambroslus merit the sentence of death, but the authorities are now sufficiently werful to no longer have recourse to this penalty; the patriarch will therebe condemned to nine years of prison with three weeks of Increased punishment.' The term 'of terrible Isolation' is employed here. It isthe equivalent of his conscience In taking the defense of those for whom he was responsible Such Is the delightful r~gimd to which those who boast of being the friends of the people condemn those who among the people are resolved to remain at any price faithful to their duty ! "You understand why, ladies and gentlemen, we can not remain silent. In our ancient city, land of refuge, we are in the habit of always protesting against the Injustices and oppressions, regardless of whence they come and who might be the victims. And we are decided, a eertaia number among us, and I hope a number which will Increase throughout our country and on the entire earth, to protect with so much force, with so much Indignation, that the redoubtable tyrants of Petrograd will be obliged to hear us and to change their method, !tthey do not wish to incur the reprobation of the entire world and particularly of all those who love the people and would be ashamed to take advantage of it. "We shall protest, firstly, because we are an already ancient democracy and because there is In question a sister democracy which is being strangled under the hypocritical cover of liberty. "We shall protest, furthermore, because the Georgian people are extremely worthy of universal sympathy; It has certainly shown this in battling so courageously and for so long for its liberty and for the realization of its destiny of a sovereign and Independent people. It is capable of governing Itself and It Is worthy of It: much more capable and much more worthy than those who are assassinating it for the purpose of taking what It possesses. "We shall protest, finally, because It Is a Christian people or one who at least has a strong desire for the Christian Ideal, which Is an Ideal of fraternity, of solidarity, .and of Justice, the only Ideal which can still save our poor humanity, swept toward the abyss for having too often, at least In Its politics, forgotten this Ideal. And we hope with all our soul that some day soon the sister nation which suffers and laments so far away from Switzerland geo. graphically but so inear to It in heart may at last enjoy this liberty which we possess since the declaration of the Gritll, and which Is the greatest of the benefits to which all peoples, small or great without exception, have the right to lay claim. Is our duty not to do everything possible to hasten the happy days when on earth all the tyrants and all the tyrannies shall have disappeared and when liberty shall be definitely victorious?" Many other persons have before bodies of similar Importance expressed similar sentiments In respect of the case of the National Republic of Georgia. Respectfully submitted. JoHv A. STEWART.
ronly
APPENDIX NO. 19 (New York Times. Sept. 20, 19241 00,000 Ru T0ooPs wT TO CAUOAsUS--RVOLT SPREADS THROUGH SOVIri
AZEzBALJAN, AND DAOHESTAN-GEORGIA UPRISING REPUBLICS o ARMENIA,
FAILS--BUT Monz THAN 20,000 PEASANTs TAKE TO MOUNTAINS TO CONTINUE GunaUMA WARVAnE
TahDZOND, Russian frontler, September 17 (delayed).--The revolution against the Bolsheviki is spreading rapidly through the Soviet Bepubles of Arnenia, Azerbaijan, and Daghestan. The red general staff poured 60,000 troops into the Caucasus this weekthrough Batum and via a roundabout rail;way through Ilstoy and Bnku-and spies from Batum report that the port s still packed with crowded troop ships. The backbone of the revolution in Georgia has been deflnitcly broken, but revolutionary detachments with thousands of peasants are doggedly falling back and digging into the mountains. Extraordinary tales are told about peasant villagers living in the foothills of the mountains roll ng enormous rocks down the mountains against the Bolsheviki, wiping out whole companies. From these mountains the rebels will be able to raid down the fertile valleys which stretch east and west through Georgia, cutting railways, capturIng troops and supplies, and annoying the Communist administration. A force of from 20,000 to 30,000 revolutionists is now entrenched In the mountains, particularly along the northern frontier. A force of 5,000 revolutionists has reached the port and rail head of Pot! after defeating the Bolshevist forces at Sukhum, but the Bolshevist fleet still is shelling them and a Bolshevist column is marching north from Batum against them. TURKISH VIEW or SITUATION Turkish military observers along the frontier consider that the red staff must keep 100.000 troops in the Caucasus indefinitely, which will greatly weaken the other fronts. The red staff must not only employ large forces to hold Batum, Tiflls. and Baku but also must keep the main railway open between these points and watch the oil fields. At least 40 scattered points throughout the Caucasus, where they are rising up against the low state prices for wheat, the peasants must still be crushed and garrisons established, and the strained relations with Turkey also require the maintenance of large forces in the Caucasus. In spite of the 15,000,000 gold rubles ($7,500,000) cash and the huge quantity of military supplies which Moscow gave Angora to help defeat the Greeks In 1921, the relations between Turkey and Russia are becoming more and more strained. Moscow is angry because Nationalist Turkey has a dream of expansion to Central Asia, which conflicts with the Russian domination of Persia and Turkestan, and particularly because the visit of Mustapha Kemal Pasha to the frontiers encouraged the Caucasian revolutionists. Moscow is also amusing Turkey now of helping the ievolutionists in many ways. The mutual defensive agreement between Poland, Rumania, and Turkey against Russia has been strengthened by Polish Senators and Deputies who bare gone to Constantinople ostensibly to attend the opening of the Polish Exposition, and that has angered Moscow. Refugees now reaching Trebizond report that life has become almost unbearable in Georgia, which formerly was one of the richest provinces In Europe. The peasants must surrender a large part of their wheat as taxes and the Soviets take the remainder at a low price, but owing to the embargo 315
316
on imports all manufactured goods are prohibitively high priced. A pair of shoes costs $20 and a suit of bad clothing $100 in Tifis and Batum. The Soviets stopped all imports into the Caucasus in order to bolster up the exchange, and the population is now in rags.
BATOM NOT TAKEN BY INSURoENTS
(Special cable to The New York Times] CoNsTANTNuoru,, September 21.-According to the latest information received by members of the Georgian colony here, serious fighting is In progress between detachments of Georgian insurgents and Soviet forces. The struggle is said to be keenest In the Provinces of Senaki, Zougdldl, and OzourgethIl. The Bolsheviki are said to have been greatly reinforced and are supplied with tanks, armored trains, airplanes, and artillery. It Is hard to arrive at the truth amid all the confile'Iang statements, but independent accounts mostly agree that the Bolsheviki are masters of the big towns and that, for example, the rumor of the capture of Batum by the insurgents was merely due to the fact that a number of prisoners had escaped from prison there. The new Persian ambassador to Turkey, who arrived three days ago via Batum, declared that the town was quiet and a similar account was given by two Englishmen who recently arrived from Tilis via Batum. One of these Englishmen says he is in telegraphic communication with his partner In Tflis and is about to consign thither a quantity of goods The only conclusion to be drawn is that the Insurrection is more of the nature of guerrilla warfare than regular compalgn, and the fighting Is now chiefly confined to activity of bands in or near mountainous districts.
I3DB US3 WOMEN AS SHIELDS IN WAII-MOSCOW TROOPS ACCUSED BY GEOROIA REVOLUTIONIWRS AS FIERCE 8Ti%TGOLR GOES ON-RrBFL ARE FALLING BACK--OMBAT
IN THE CAUCASUS MOUNTAINS'18 SAID TO BF. CAUSING [From the Chicago Tribune]
LCREAT S LO
TaJOND, September 26.-In a battle now raging for more than a week in the towering Caucasus ranges in the Province of Svanethie, 125 miles east of Batum, the red armies are trying to crush Colonel Tcholkachvilis's Insurgent force of 20,000 by using thousands of women and children as shields at the heads and sides of their attacking columns. The number of women and girls who have perished from the prodding of Bolshevist bayonets, or falling by the wayside exhausted, or from stray bullets from the revoluilonists runs Into many hundreds. The retreat of Colonel Tcholkaehvllls' forces into the almost inaccessible dales of Mount Elbros to escape firing on their own flesh and blood, and the pursuit of the red army which could plainly be seen dragging and pushing and bayoneting the women along, is described In minute detail in telegrams received through an underworld service of the Georgian Independence Committee. The last telegram Is dated two days ago and the last newspaper four days ago. The final fate of between 2,000 and 3.000 women Is unknown. When the red army reinforcements from the Rumanian and Polish frontiers broke the Georgian struggle for Independence two weeks ago many revolu. tionary bands which had been fighting along the Batum-Tifils Railway and pipe line fell back northward Lito the mountainous Province of Svanethte, 78 miles north of Kutals, and joined Colonel Tcholkachvillis, who had been carryIng on guerrilla warfare against the reds since the latter conquered Georgia -on March 21. The red general staff telegraphed from Moscow that ColorAI Teholkachvills must be crushed at any cost, because his powerful Insurgent force could keep Georgia In an uproar, and particularly could cut the Batum-Tifils-Baku Railway and the vital pipe line. Colonel Tcholkachvillis could force the Soviets to keep almost 100,000 troops In the Caucasus, which would greatly weaken the red army and be the rallying point constantly for a new revolution which might even sweep the Soviets from power. The Soviets were terrorized with the Idea that If one powerful revolution got out of hand all Russia will rise against them.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA On the lower slopes of Svanethie Province a big red army was sent out from Datum, captured and burned all the villages, massacred many inhabitants, and deported thousands of others to Siberia, but the colonel's insurgents held them back many days, rolling huge stones upon the advancing red columns and fighting from behind trees. The reds used many batteries of field and mountain guns, but the insurgents were well protected by caves and rocks. The reds even tried airplanes and tanks, but were unsueccessful. Finally, Moscow telegraphed a furious order to use all the women, girls, and children captured in the villages as shields for the red columns not only during the day's marching but around the camps at night. The women, even some with babies in their arms, were concentrated in one big camp near the town of Oni, formed into companies, and assigned to different columns. When the red columns started up the mountain- sides on Saturday morning Colonel Tcholkachvllis's men holding a line of rocks and trees, 700 yards ahead, were agonized to see their own wives, daughters, mothers, and sisters being pushed ahead and beside the reds as shields. Even the batteries used women when moving and firing, many being killed by battery fire. The force of the colonel was falling back in an orderly manner, according to last accounts, but the mountains are bare of provisions.
APPENDIX NO. 20 GENEL Iu aaa L
's REPOI'T--AM UCAN MILiTARY MISSION To AaUSiLA

AMRIMOAN MI1ITAZY MISSION TO ARMENIA.
Op Board U. f. 8. Martha Washington, October 16, 1919. from: NaJ. Gem- James G. Harbord, United Stat.. Army. To: The Secretary of State. Subject: Report of the American Military Mission to Armenia. STe undersigned submits herewith the report of the American Military Mission to Armenia. The mission, organized under authority of the President consisted of Maj, Gen. James 0. Harbord, United States Army; Brig. Gen. Frank R. McCoy, United States Army; Brig. Gen. George Van Horn Moseley, United States Army; Col. Henry Beeuwkes, Medical Corps. United States Army; Lieut. Col. John Price Jackson, United States Engineers; Lieut. Col. Jasper Y.* Brinton, Judge advocate, United States Army; Lieut. Col. Edward Bowditch, Jr., Infantry, United States Army; Commander W. W. Bertholf, United States Navy; MaJ. Lawrence Martin, General Staff, United States Army; MaJ. Harold Clark, Infantry, United States Army; Capt. Stanley K. Hornbeck, Ordnance Department, United States Army (chief of Far Eastern Division, American Commission to Negotiate Peace) ; Mr. William B. Poland, chief of the American Relief Commission for Belgium and Northern France; Prof. W. W. Cumberland, economic advisor to the American Commission to Negotiate Peace; Mr. Eliot Grinnell Mears, trade commissioner, Department of Commerce; with other officers, clerks, Interpreters, etc. The Instructions to the mission were to"Proceed without delay on a Government vessel to Constantinople, Batum. and such other places In Armenia, Russian Transcaucasia, and Syria, as will enable you to carry out Instructions already discussed with you. It Is desired that you Investigate and report on political, military, geographical. adminltratire. economic, and other considerations Involved in possible American Interests and responsibilities In that region." The mission proceeded by ship to Constantinople. From there it traveled by the Bagdad Railway to Adana near the northeastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea; the scene of the massacres of 1909, and the principal city of the rich Province of Cilicla, where two days were spent visiting Tarsus, and the ports of Ayas and Mersina; thence continued by rail via Aleppo to Mardin; from there by motor car to Diarbekir, Kbarput, Malutla, Sivas. ErzinJan, Erzerum. Kars Erivan, and Tflis; thence by rail to Baku and Batum. Erivan, Titles, and Baku are the capitals, respectively, of the Republics of Armenia, Georgia, and AzarbaiJan, and Batum Is the seat of the British military gov. ernment of the Georgian district of that name. Members of the mission also traveled by carriage from Ula-Kishla to Sivas; from Sivas to Samsun; visiting Marsovan where there Is much apprehension among the Armenian population at this time; from Trebizond to Erzerum; by horseback from Khorasan to Bsyazid; from Erivan to Nakbichevan, near the Pers:an border. The Armenian Catholicos, His Holiness Kevork V, was visited at Etebmiadzin the historic seat of the Armenian Church, with Its ancient cathedral dated from 301 A. D. The mission traversed Asia Minor for Its entire length and the Trans. caucasus from north to south and east to west. All of the Vilayets of Turkish Armenia were visited except Van and Bitlis, which were In accessible In the time available, but which have been well covered by Captain Niles, an Army officer who inspected them on horseback In August, and whose report corroborates our observations In the neighboring regions; as well as both Provinces of the Armenian Republic, and the Republics of Azarbaijan and Georgia. The Turkish frontier was paralleled from the Black Sea to Persia. On the return voyage from Batum the mission visited Samsun, the port of one of the world's great tobacco regions, and Trebizond, the latter a principal port on the south 318
319
shore of the Black Sea, terminus of the ancient caravan route ta Persia, o historic interest a the point where the Greek i.000 reached the sea under Xenophon over 2A00 years ago. The mission spent 30 days In Asia Minot and Transcaucasia, and interviewed at length representatives of every Government exercising sovereignty in that region, as well as individual 'Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Kurds, Tartars, Georgians, Russians, Persians, Jews, Arabs, British, and French, including Americans for some time domiciled in the country. It also gave consideration to the views -of the various educational, religious, and charitable organizations supported by America. In addition to this personal contact, the mission before leaving Paris was in frequent conference with the various delegations to the peacp conference from the regions visited. It hs had before it numerous reports of the American Committee for Relief in the Near East and Food Administration and that of the mission of Mr. Benja.nin B. Moore sent by the peace coDference to Transcaucasia, as well as the very complete library on the region, Its geography, history, and governments, loaned by the Librarian of Congress, the American Mission to Negotiate Peace, and others. It has listened to the personal experiences of many witnesses to the atrocities of 1915, and benefited by the views of many persons whose knowledge of the various peoples In the regions visited is that obtained by years spent among them. The interest, the horror, and sympathy of the civilized world are so centered on Armenia, and the purpose and work of this mission so focused on that blood-soaked region and its tragic remnant of a Christian population that this report should seem to fall naturally under the following heads: (a) History and present situation of the Armenian people; (b) the political situation and suggestions for readjustment; (e) the conditions and problems involved in a mandatory; (d) the considerations for and against the undertaking of a mandate. The report is accordingly so presented.
TILE IIISTORY AND PRESENT SITUATION OV ARMENIAN PEOPLE
The Armenians were known to history under that name in the fifth century B. C., and since that period have lived In the region where their misfortunes find them to-day. Their country is the great, rough table-land, from 8,000 to 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, of which Mount Ararat is the dominant peak. In ancient times it touched the Mediterranean, Caspian, ond Black Seas. In later days it has dwindled to about 140,000 square miles, an area about as large as Montana, without political Identity, but existing in 1914 in two parts, the eastern belonging to Russia, whieh consisted of Kars and Erivan unad some portions of the present territory of Azerlaijai; the remainder beig Turkish Armenia, comprised in the villayets of Van, Bitlis, Erzerum, Diarbekir, Kharput, and Cilicia, though Armenians were scattered more or less throughout the whole of Transcaucatsia and Asia Minor. Armenia was an organized nation 1,000 years before there was one in Europe, except (ireece and Rome. For over 12 of the 25 centuries of its history Armenia enjoyed independence within borders that shifted with the events of the times. Its last king, Leon VI, an exile from his own hnd, spent his last years in the effort to bring about an understanding between France and England, then in the struggle of the Hundred Years War, and actually presided at a peace conference near Boulogne in 138, which brought about the understanding which led to the end of that war. Armenia was evangelized by Apostles fresh from the memory of our Lord as early as 33 A. D., and as a nation adopted Christianity and founded a national church in 301 A. D., which has outridden the storms of the centuries and is vital to-day. Armenia was the first nation to officially adopt Christianity, with all that act involved In a pagan world. The first two centuries following the foundation of the church were a golden age of Armenian literature, witnessing the Invention of an Armenian alphabet; the translation of the Bible Into the vernacular: the thronging of Armenians to the great centers of learning at Athens, Rome, and Alexandria; and the development of a flexible literary language, one of the great assets of national life. By Its geographical location on the great highway of Invasion from east to west the ambitions of Persia, the Saracens and the rising tide of Islam, and the Crusades found Armenia the extreme frontier of Christianity in the q6153-24--21
820
NATIONAL REPUBLIC' OF OROEGIA
Eas. Perdan, Parthlaw, Saraeens, Tartars, and Turks have exacted more martyrs from the Armemia* church in proportion to its numbers than have been sacrificed by any other race. The last Armenian dynasty was overthrown by the Sultan of Egypt 78 years before the fall of Constantinople to Mahomet IL in 1453.. From that time until to-day the story of their martyrdom is unbroken. In the Persian, the Roman, the Byzantine, the Armenian found Aryan kinsmen and tyranny was tempered with partial autonomy. Even the Saracen was a high racial type and reciprocal adjustments had been possible. The Turk to whom they now fall prey was a raiding nomad from * central Asia. His mainsprings of action were plunder, murder, and enslavement; his methods the scimitar and the bowstring. The Crusades were long ended. Europe busy with her own renaissance contented herself with standing on the defensive against the Moslem, and the eastern Christian was forgotten. For more than three centuries the Armenian people figure little In the history of the times, though at an earlier period 16 Byzantine Emporers were of that race, and ruled the eastern empire with distinction. Many individuals, and even colonies, however, played a part in distant lands. Europe, India, and Persia welcomed them. They were translators, bankers, scholars, artisans, artists, and traders, and even under their tyrannical masters filled posts which called for administrative ability, became ambassadors and ministers, and more than once saved a tottering throne. They carried on trades, conducted commerce, and designed and constructed palaces. Nevertheless as a race they were forbidden military service, taxed to poverty, their property confiscated at pleasure, and their women forced into the harems of the conqueron. Such slavery leaves some Inevitable and unlovable traces upon the character, but in the main the Armenian preserved his religion, his language, and his racial purity, persecution bringing cohesion. Time, temperament, and talent eventually brought most of the industry, finance, commerce, and much of the intellectual and administrative work of the Ottoman Empire into Armenian hands. The progress of events in Europe brought about in the early nineteenth century a revival of interest In the forgotten Near East. As early as 1744 the treaty of KainardJe had placed Imperial Russia in the role of a protector of the Christians of the Near East, an attitude many times under the suspicion by contemporary statesmen, but whatever its motives, the only genuine attempt by any European nation to afford such protection to helpless Armenia. A plebiscite in Russian Armenia, if fairly held, would probably vote a reconstituted Russia into a mandatory for that region. With Armenian consciousness of their own capacity to trade, to administer, and to govern in the name of others there came in the last quarter of the nineteenth century the opportunity to throw their weight into the scale for the reform of Turkey from within, at a time when the dismemberment of Turkey was balanced in European politics against the possibility of her self-redemption. In 1876 a constitution for Turkey was drawn up by the Armenian KrIkor Odian, secretary to Midat Pasha, the reformer, and was proclaimed and almost immediately revoked by Sultan Abdul Hamid. The foregoing inadequately sketches the story of the wrongs of Armenia down to our own tImes. From 1876 it is a story of massacre and of broken and violated guaranties. The Russo-Turkish War ended In 1877 by the treaty of San Stefano, under which Russia was to occupy certain regions until actual reforms had taken place in Turkey. This treaty, through British jealousy of Russia, was torn up the following year and the futile treaty of Berlin substituted, asking protection bnt without guaranties. Meantime there had been the convention of Cyprus, by which that island passed to Great Britain, and the protection of Turkey was promised for the Armenians in return for Great Britain's agreement to come to the aid of Turkey against Russia. A collective note of the powers in 1880 was ignored by Turkey. Then followed the agreement of 1895, which was never carried out, and the restoration of the constitution of 1876 in 1908. A further agreement in 1914 was abrogated at the entrance of Turkey In the war-and the last of the series is a secret treaty of 1916 between Great Britain. France, and Russia, the existence and publication of which rests on Bolshevik authority, by which Armenia was to be divided between Russia and France. Meanwhile there have been organized official mat.sucres of the Armenians ordered every few years since Abdul HamId ascended the throne. In 1895, 100,000 perished. At Van In 1908, and at
. NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROIA
321
Adana and elsewhere in Cilicia In 1909, over 30,000 were murdered. The last and greatest of these tragedies was in 2915. Conservative estimates place the number of Armenians in Asiatic Turkey in 1914 over 1,500,000, though some e.. it higher. Massacres and deportations were organized in the spring of 1915 under definite system, the Poldlers going from town to town. The official reports of the Turkish Government show 1,100,000 as having been deported. Young men were first summoned to the government building in each village and then marched out and killed. The women, the old men, and children were, after a few days, deported to what Talaat Pasha called "agricultural colonies," from the high, cool, breeze-swept plateau of Armenia to -the malarlan flats of the Euphrates and the burning sands of Syria and Arabia. The dead from this wholesale attempt on the race are variously estimated from 500,000 to more than a million, the usual figure being about 800.000. Driven on foot under a fierce summer sun, robbed of their clothing and such petty articles as they carried, prodded by bayonet if they lagged; starvation, typhus, and dysentery left thousands dead by the trailside. The ration was a pound of bread ever alternate day, which many did not receive, and later a small daily sprinkling of meal on the palm of the outstretched hand was the only food. Many perished from thirst or were killed as they attempted to slake th:rst at the crossing of running streams. Numbers were murdered by savage Kurds, against whom the Turkish soldiery afforded no protection. Little girls of 9 or 10 were sold to Kurdish brigands for a few piastres, and women were promiscuously violated. At Sivas an instance was related of a teacher in the Sivas Teachers' College, a gentle, refined Armenian girl, speaking English, knowing music, attractive by the standards of any land, who was given in enforced marriage to the beg of a neighboring Kurdish village, a filthy, ragged ruffian three times her age, with whom she still has to live, and by whom she has borne-a child. In the orphanage there maintained under American relief auspices, there were 150 "brides," being girls, many of them of tender age, who had been living as wives In Moslem homes and had been rescued. Of the female refugees among some 75,000 repatriated from Syria and Mesopo. tamia, we were informed at Aleppo that 40 per cent are infected with venereal disease from the lives to which they have been forced. The women of this race were free from such diseases before the deportation. Mutilation, violation, torture, and death have left their haunting memories In a hundred beautiful Armenian valleys, and the traveler in that region is seldom free from the evidence of this most colossal crime of all the ages. Yet Immunity from it all might have been purchased for any Armenian girl or comely woman by adjuring her religion and turning Moslem. Surely no faith has ever been put to harder test or has been cherished at greater cost. Even before the war the Armenians were far from being In the majority in the region claimed as Turkish Armenia, excepting in a few places. To-day we doubt if they would be in the majority In a single community even when the last survivors of the massacres and deportations have returned to the soil. though the great losses of Turkish population to some extent offset the difference brought about by slaughter. We estimate that there are probably 270,000 Armenians to-day in Turkish Armenia. Some 75,000 have been repatriated from the Syrian and Mesopotamian side, others are slowly returning from other regions, and some from one cause or another remained in the country. There are in the Transcaucasus probably 300,000 refugees from Turkish Armenia, and some thousands more in other lands, for they have drifted to all parts of the Near East. The orphanages seen throughout Turkey and Russian Armenia testify to the loss of life among adults. They are Turkish as well as Armenian, and the mission has seen thousands of these pathetic little survivors of the unhappy years of the war. Reports from 20 stations in Turkey show 15,000 orphans receiving American aid, and undoubtedly the number demanding care is double this, for many were seen cared for under the auspices of the Red Crescent, the organization which in Moslem countries corresponds to our Red Cross. Twenty thousand are being cared for at the expense of the various relief agencies in the Transcaucasus. On the route traveled by the mission fully 50,000 orphans are to-day receiving Government or other organized care. We estimate a total of perhaps half a million refugee Armenians as available to eventually begin life anew in a region about the size of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, to which would be added those, not refugees, who might return from other lands. The condition of the refugees seen in the Transcaucasus is pitiable to the last degree. They subsist on the charity of the American relief organiza.
322
NATIONAL HIEPUBLIC OF GEOROIA
!ions with some help, not great, however, from their more prosperous kinsmen d,,milcled in that region. Generally they wear the rags they have worn for fouv years. Eighty per cent of them suffer from malaria. 10 per cent from venerzal troubles, and practically all from diseawes that flourish on the frontiers of starvitton. There are also the dmea.ses that accompany filth, loathsome skin trouble.,%and great numbers of wore eyev, the latter especially among the children. Thi hospitals are crowded w.th such eases. The refugees In Russian Armenia have hitherto drifted from place to place, but an effort &snow being made by the administration of Colonel Haskell to concentrate them in several refugee *tamps. The winter season will see many deaths." i* the winters there are extremely severe, fuel is sarc, and shelter inadequate, Medicines are scarce and very dear. Quinine cost approximately $30 a pound. On the Turkish side of the border where Armenians have returned they are gradually recovering their property, and fit some cases have received rent for it, but generally they fld things In ruins, and face winter out of touch with the American relief, and with only such desultory assistance as the Turkish Government can afford. Things are little If any better with the peasant Turks In the same region. They are practically serfs equally destitute, and equally defenseles.; against the winter. No doctors or medicines are to be had. Villages are in ruins, some having !een destroyed when the Armenians fled or were deported; some during the Russian advance; some on the retreat of the Armenian Irregulars and Russians after the fall of the empire. Not over 20 per cent of the Turkish peasants who went to war have returned. The absence of men between the ages of 20 and 35 is very noticeable. Six hundred thousand Turkish soldiers died of typhus alone, it is stated, and Insufficient hospital service and absolute poverty of supply greatly swelled the death 1lsts,. In the region Which witnessed the ebb and flow of the Russlan and Turkish Armies, the physical condition of the country Is very deplorable. No crops have been raised for several years and the land ordinarily cultivated has gone to weed.s. Scarcely a village or city exists which is not largely In ruins. The country is practically treeless. Where the desperate character of the warfare, with Its reprisalR of burning and destroying as one side and then the othur advanced, has not destroyed the buildings, which are generally of adobe, the wooden beams have been taken for fuel and the houses are ruined. In the territory untouched by war from which Armenians were deported the ruined villages are undoubtedly due to Turkish deviltry, but where Armenians advanced and retired with the Russians their retaliatory cruelties unquestionably rivaled the Turks in their Inhumanity. The reconstruction of this country will be little short in difficulty of Its original reclamation from virgin wilderness in days when the world was young. Where the 'usslan went he built fine macadam highways, and even the main Turkish roads generally built during the war over which our mission traveled were passable, and some quite good. All highways are rapidly going to ruin for lack of maintenance. A country once fairly equipped for motor traffic is sliding back to dependence on the camel caravan, the diminutive pack donkey, and the rattly, rushackly araba wagon. The ox Is the principal draft. animal. A good highway existed from Erzeruni to Trebizond. on the line of the most ancient trade route in the world. that from Persia to the Black Sea, through which,'in all ages, the carpets and Jewels of Persia have reached the western world. The distance is about 150 miles. The freight rate is now between $145 and $150 per ton. In the portion of Turkey traversed we heard of brigandage, but experienced no inconvenience. Apparently the Turkish Government, inefficient and wicked as It sometimes Is, can control its people and does govern. In the region once policed by Russia the relaxation from Its Iron hand has been great, and life and property are unsafe In many regions. Our mission was fired upon by Kurdq in Russian Armenia and several motor cars struck by bullets, and over half the party were kept prisoner one night by Moslems who claimed to have been driven from their villages by Armenians. In AzvarbaiJan we were also fired upon. Train wrecks for rohl*lry ati frequent on the Transcaucasian Railroad. and the Georgian floverninent took the precaution to run pilot engines ahead of our train for safety. The high ways are unsafe even to tie suburbs of the large towns. Practically every man in Georgia and Azarbaijan, outside the cities, carries a rifle. If he desires to stop a traveler on the highway, he motions or calls to him, and If unheeded, fires at him,
NATIONAL REPUBIAC OF GEORGIA
323
The relief work consists of the allotment made to the Transeaucasus from the unexpended balance of the hundred millions appropriated by Congress for relief in allied countries, and of the funds contributed through the American Committee for Relief in the Near East. All circumstances considered. the relief administration in the Transcaucasus seems to have been conducted with more than average energy. It has rescued the refugees there from starvation. and brought the name of America to a height of sympathy and esteem it has never before enjoyed in this region. It extends now throughout the Near East and is felt by the wild, ragged Kurd, the plausible Georgian, the suspicious Azarbaijan, the able Armenian, and the grave Turk with equal seriousness. With it or probably because of it there has come widespread knowledge of he fourteen points submitted by the President, and "self-determination" haa been quoted t, the mision by wild Arabs from Shamar and Basra, by every governments in Transcaucasia, by the mountaineers of Daghestan, the dignified and able chiefs of the Turkish Nationalist movement at Sivas and Eruerum, and the nomad Kurds who 10 minutes before had fired at our party thinking us to be Armenians. Undoubtedly some charges of corruption on the part of native officials connected with the relief could be substantiated. Charges of partiality favoring Christian against Moslem In equal distress are not infrequent. Due to inexperience, to difficulties of communication, and other caused there has been Inefficiency on the part of American officials and employees. Enthuslastic young Americans out of touch with the sources of their funds, confronted with the horrors of famine In a refugee population, drew drafts on the good faith and generosity of their countrymen, procedure not usual in the business world, but drafts that were honored nevertheless. Any criticism of unbusinesslike methods must be accompanied with the statement of work accomplished, which has been very great and very creditable to America and her splendid citizens who bare so generously contributed to this cause. Colonel laskell has reorganized the work in the Transcaucass and Is getting better results. In some way funds must be found and this work must be continued and the people be sustaled until they can harvest a crop. If seed Is available for planting, a crop should he due in August, 1920. Even this prospective amelioration only applies to those repossemed of their lands. There Is much to show that, left to themselves, the Turk and the Armenian when left without official instigation have hitherto been able to live together in peace. Their existence side by side on the same soil for five centuries unmistakably indicates their interdependence and mutual Interest. The aged Vail of Erzerum, a man old in years and in official experience, informed us that In his youth, before massacres began under Abdul Haurld. the Turk and the Armenian lived in peace and confidence. The Turk making the pilgrimage to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina left his family and property with his Armenian neighbor; similarly the Armenian on the eve of a Journey Intrusted his treasures to his Turkish friend. Testimony is universal that the massacres have always been ordered from Constantinople. Some Turkish officials were pointed out to us by American missionaries as having refused lo carry out the 1915 order for deportation. That order is universally attributed to the Committee of Union and Progress, of which Enver Bey, Talaat Bey. and DJemal Pasha were the leaders. A court has been sitting in the capital practically since the armistice, and one man, an unimportant subordinate, has been hung. Talnat, Enver, and DJemal are at large, and a group of men charged with various crimes against the laws of war are at Malta in custody of the British, unpunished, except as restrained from personal liberty. Various rumors place Enver Bey as scheming in the Transcaucasus, and a French officer Is authority for the statement that he has been in Tiflis within two months conferring with government officials. This man is in Turkish eyes a heroic figure; risen from obscurity by his own efforts, allied by marriage to the Imperial House of Osman, credited with military ability, the possibilities of disturbance are very great should he appear in command of Moslem irregulars on the Aznrhaijan-Armenian frontier. Much are conditions to-day in the regions where the renmiant of the Armenian people exist; roads and lands almost back to the wild: starvation only kept off by American relief; villages and towns in ruins; brigandage rampant In the Transcaucasus : lack of medicines and warm clothing; winter coming on in a treeless land without coal. We saw nothing to prove that Armenians who have returned to their homes in Turkey are in danger of their lives, but their natural apprehension has been greatly increased by unbalanced advice given by officers 0n the withdrawal of foreign troops from certain regions. Tho
NATIONAL REPUBLIC 0? 'EORGIA events at Smyrna have undoubtedly cheapened every Christian life In Turkey, the landing of the Greeks there being looked upon by the Turks as deliberate violation by the Allies of the terms of their armistice and the probable fore. runner of further unwarranted aggression. The moral responsibility for pressent unrest throughout Turkey to very heavy on foreign powers. Meantime the Armenian, unarmed at the time of the deportations and massacres, a brave soldier by thousands In the armies of Russia, France, and America during the war, is still unarmed in a land where every man but himself carries a rifle.
THE POLITICAL SITUATION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR READJUST-MENT
In seeking a remedy for political conditions which shriek of misery, ruin, starvation, and all the melancholy aftermath, not only of honorable warfare, but of beastial brutality unrestrained by God or man. but Alch nevertheless prevail under an existing government with which the powers of Europe have long been willing to treat on termq of equality, ones first Impulse is to inquire as to the possibility of reform from within. The machiniery of government existing, can It be repaired and made a going concern, affording to Itf people the guarantees of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness which the modern world expects of its governments? The case of the Turkish Empi'e was duly presented to the peace conference in Paris on June 17 last by the Turkish Grand Vizier, Damad Ferd Pasha, in which he admitted for the Turkish Government of the unhappy region under consideration, the commisaban of "misdeeds which are such as to make the conscience of mankind shudder with horror forever," and that "Asia Minor is to-day nothing but a vast heap of ruins." In the reply made by the council of ten of the peace conference, to the plea of the Grand Vizier for the life of his Empire, the probability of that Government being able to accomplish reforms from within which will satisfy modern requirements and perhaps make amends for past crimes, is well weighed In the following words: . "Yet in all these changes there has been no case found either in Europe or in Asia or in Africa In which the establishment of Turkish rule in any country has not been followed by a diminution of prosperity in that country. Neither is there any case to be found In which the withdrawal of Turkish rule has not been followed by material prosperity and a rise in culture. Never among the Christians In Europe, nor among the Moslems in Syria, Arabia, or Africa has the Turk done other than destroy wherever he has conquered Never has he shown that he is able to develop In peace what he has gained in war. Not In this direction do his talents lie." It seems likely, therefore, that as far as the Armenians are concerned the Turk has had his day, and that further uncontrolled opportunity will be denied him. " With the break-up of Russia the Transcaucasus found itself aflrift. This Transcaucasian region Is ethnographically one of the most complicated in the world. In nIl ages It has been one of the great highways for mankind. Here stragglers and racial remnants have lodged during all the centuries that the tides of migration have swept the base of the great Caucasus Range, until to-day its small area contains fire great racial groups, divided into some 40 distinct races. Nine of these have arrived In comparatively recent times, but the remaining 31 are more or less indigenous. There are here 25 purely Caucasian races. This racial diversity Is complicated by the fact that with the exception of the fairly compact group of Georgians and one of Tartars these peoples are Inextricably commingled throughout the region. Their civilization varies from the mountain savage to individuals of the highest types. Of the 40 distinct races, the most Important groups are the Georgians, the Azarbaijanese Tartars, and the Armenians. A Transcaucasian confederation formed by all the peoples in that region was followed by an alignment In three small Republics, Georgia, Azarbaijan, and Armenia. Georgia Is Christian; and Its Iberian population are in the majority; AbarbaiJan is Tartar and Moslem; Armenia is made up of the former Provinces that composed Russian Armenia, less the part that went to Azarbaijan in the split, and the majority of its people are the blood brothers of the Armenians of Turkey in Asia. These Republics have been recognized by none of the powers except Turkey. The Armenian Republic seeks at the peace conference a union with the Turkish Armenians and the creation of an Armenian state to include Russian Armenia and the six Turkish Vilayets (Van, Bltils, DIarbekir, Kharput, Sivas, Erzerum) and Cilicia, to be governed by a mandatory of the
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OBOBOIA
325
great powers durlr.g a transition state of a term of years in which Armenians of the dispersion may return to their homes and a constitdent assembly be held to determine the form of the eventual permanent Government. Georgia and Azarbaijan ask independence at the peace conference with certain adjustments of disputed boundaries in which all Transcaucasla Is Interested. Both Georgia and Azarbaijan, living on the salvage from the wreck of Russia, have persuaded themselves that the civilization and governmental and business machinery they have taken over have been theirs from the beginning. The Georgians, with a church of their own antedating that of Rusala and traditions of a Georgian dynasty of Armenian origin which reigned In Tifls for a thousand years before Russia took over the country in 1802, are a very proud and plausible race. They have been much Influenced by the proximity of bolshevism, fly the red flag of revolution over their own, and have nationalized land, taking It from the original owners without compensation, to sell to peas ants. This measure has been unsatisfactory to both peasant ond proprietor. The AzarbalJanese are Tartars by blood and Moslem by religion and sympathy. The varied topography of their little country and the diversity of its products make them more independent of outside help than either of the other Trans. caucasian Republics. Both Georgian and Azarbaijan Governments live In terror of the forces of Deniken coming south of the Caucasus Mountains. Georgia has her little army on her northern frontier; and Azarbaijan has a tacit agreement with General Deniken to refrain from hostilities against him In return for immunity fom attack by his gunboats on the Caspian Sea. The Russian Armenian i are the blood brothers of those in Turkey and came under Russian domination In 1878. They absorbed many Russian manners and customs, and the wealth and ability of the race gave them a predominant rMle In the Transcaucasus under Russa. Tiflis, which was the Russian capital, has probably the largest Armenian population of any city in the world except New York and Constantinople. They are friendly to Deniken and a recon istituted Russia, and their refusal to join Georgia and Azarbaijan against Deniken caused the break-up of the Travscaucaslan Federation. The dominant civilization In Transcaucasia Is Russian. Everything worth while In the country Is due to Russian money and Russian enterprise. Besides this common bond, these countries are interdependent In the matter of transportation. From Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, a railroad runs west to the Black Sea at Batum and east to the Caspian Sea at Baku, the capital of Azarbaijan; and south to Erivan, the capital of the Republic of Armenia. The road Is one of system, of the Russian gauge, with the three radii from Tiflls each ending In a different country, something like the following: Batum On Black Sea (Briti3b military government.) (Or0rgia.) -'f Baku. On Cplan ef) (AzarbWlan.)
Ervan. (Inland Armenia.) Under Russia the road was, of course, under one management, with shop, rolling stock, and policy in common. Georgia now controls the shops, Azarbaijan the oil fuel, and each of the three such rolling stock as it can get. No one of the three trusts the others; no through or continuous traffic Is possible without an outside power guaranteeing the return of the rolling stock when it passes from one jurisdiction to another. Georgia does not hesitate to embargo
KiNAVIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
freight against Armenia, and fsom her position of vantage simply censors the railroad traffic to that unfortunate country. Azarbaijan controls the fuel simpply and combines with Georgia against Armenia, which along of the three has nothing by which to exeit leverage. The railroad can neither be consolidated nor properly operated under native control. Roadbed and rolling stock are rapidly deteriorating. A2 example of the power of Georgia over Armenia Is that the latter Is not pe:iiA-t.,1 to import either arms or ammunitie, though under almost Cestant menace from its neighbors. The three Governments from an occidental standpoint are now thoroughly inefficient, without credit, and undoubtedly corrupt. Alone each faces nextrictable financial difficulties Religious differencee, added to racial, threaten to embroil them unless brougt under a common control. Two of them have no outlet to #he Black Sea. except through. Georgia over the railroad. They have no present lntermonetary, postal, or customs union, and, as stated, no definite agreement for common control and we of the railroad, and are in coutinual squabbles over bonidarlea Asarbaijan has no educated class capable of well administering a grverinuent: Georgia is threatened by bolshevism; Armenia is In ruins and partial starvation. All our investigation brings conviction that the people In each would welLome a mandatory by a trustworthy outside power. Russian Armenia would to-day probably vote a mandate to Russia if that power were reconstituted. Georgia recalls Its andient independence and was never thoroughly reconciled to Russian rule. Azarbaijan, Tartar and Moslem, feels a double tie to Turkey and distrusts the Christlan, but the more intelligent people realize that outside control ia Inevitable and even necessary to tleir relations with Christian countries, and that Turkey is beyond consideration. So closely we the countries related geographically, commercially, and by the habit of generations that this mission met only believes that. a mandatory is necessary for them but that it is imperative from the standpoints of peace, order, efficiency, and economy that the same power shall exercise a mandate over thcmn all, leaving for the present their interior boundaries unsettled. The ultimate disposition or form of gov. ernment of these states, other than that they may look forward to autonomy, but not necessarily Independence, should in our opinion not now be announced. Their capacity for self-government and their ability to sustain amicable and workable relations among themselves remain to be tested under control by Suck power as may be lduced to undertake its supervision, facing a long period of tutelage for possibly unappreciative and ungrateful pupils, much exjuese, probably diplomatic embarrassment from a reconstitution of Russia, and little reward except the consciousness of having contributed to the peace of the world and the rehabilitation of oppressed humanity. The covenant of the League of Nations contemplates that " certain communrties formerly belonging to the Turkih Emnpire" shall be subject to a mandatdry power for an unstated period, thus appearing to recognize in advance the dismemberment to some degree of that Empire. (The italic is ours.) This, in connection with the arraignment of the Turkish Government in the reply of the peace conference, partly quoted on page 15 ante (see page 0), may not unreasonably be construed to apply to any or all parts of the Turkish Empire, as fast as they reach a certain stage of development. As between actual dismemberment and a receivership for his entire country, the Turk would beyond doubt prefer a mandatory for the whole Empire as it may stand after adjudication by the peace conference. Bad as lie is, without the pale of consideration from many standpoints, therm would -eem to be no objection to action taken in his interest and In line with his preference if the interest and inclination of the world lie lit the same direction. A power which should undertake a mandatory for Armenia and Transcaucasla without control of the contiguous territory of Asia Minor-Anatoliaand of Constantinople, with Its hinterland of Roumuella, would unileriake it under most unfavorable and trying conditions. so difficult as to make the cost almost prohibitive. the maintenance of law and order and the security of life and properly uncertain, anid ultimate success extremely doubtful. With the Turkish Empire still freely controlling Constantinople, such a power would be practically emasculated as far as real power is concerned. For generations these peoples have looked to Constantinople as the seat of authority. The most Intelligent and ambitious Armenians have sought the capital as a career. The patrlarch of the Armenian Church in Constantinople, although subordinate il matters of doctrine to the Catholicos at Etchmiadzin, Is in reality the
NATIONAL REPUBO OF GEOIOI
327
political head of the Armenian people by his location in Constantinople. Every people in the Empire is numerously represented at the capital, the 4rmeulou reaching before the war the number of 10,OO, with business connections ramifying to distant corners of the entire country. To no small degree the future business and Industrial development of their native land will depqad upon these men. Transportation lines and commerce center at Constantinople. Before the war Constantinople was the most important port In Continental Europe, reckoned upon the basis of skipping clearances. There are 'eilInformed business men who believe It is destined to become the third most Important commercial city in the world. But, through generations of habit, unless put under a mandatory, Constantinople will continue to be a whirlpool of financial and political currents. Concession hunting, financial intrigue, political exploitation, and International rivalries will center there in the future as in the past. Concerted international action for administration of orn. stantinople is impracticable. All concerts for governmental action are cumbersome; all concerts must have a leader to.aecure effectiveness, and were it possible to agree upon one power which should really lead, the reality of a mandate would exist with the handicap of a camouflage concert. In any con. cert for the future government of Constantinople there would still exist the temptation for single powers to play politics and befriend Turkey for value received. There must be actual control, for responsibility without authority Is worse than useless, In a land of oriental viewpoints. As Americans supposed to be disinterested, this mission was the recipient of confidences from the various sources. Turks when not deriding foreign efforts were deploring their effect on their unfortunate Empire. Without dependable centralized control of Constantinople, a power exercising mandate In Armenia would he crippled In administration, restricted in trade development, ridden by concessionaires, dependent on Turkish discredited diplomacy for redress of local and boundary grievances, and in extreme case practically cut off from communication with the western world. It Is believed that allied sentiment is so crystallized In the opinion that Constantinople must be placed under a mandatory that It may safely be assumed for the purpose of this report that this will be done. Conceded tMnt there shall be a mandate for Armenia and Transcaucasia and one for Constantinople and Anatolia, there are many considerations that Indi. (cate the desirability of having such mandates exercised by the same power. If separate powers exercised such mandate the inevitable Jealousies, hatreds, exaggerated separatist tendencies, and econfamie difficulties would compel failure. With all Its faults the Turkish Empire is an existing nstitution and It has some rusty blood-stalned political machinery which under control of a strong mandatory can be made to function. The peoples in question live In adjacent territory and whether they wish It or not are neghbors. A single mandatory for the Turkish Empire and the 1''ranscaucasus would be the most economical solution. No Intelligent scheme for development of railroads for Transcaucasla and Armenia ein be worked out without extension into Anatolia. Natural highways through the high mountains of Armenia are few, and transportation development will, with proqper feeders, at best be costly and difficult; without access into Anatolia It will be Impolsible. For nny years the expenses of exploitation will not be met by equivalent receipts. This situation would be alleviated by control of both regions. With Constantinople, Anatolia, and Armenia In different hands, the manufacturers and exporters of Arnenia could not hope for an equal share In the commerce and trade of the Near East. The Armenian patriarch, the head of the Armenian Protestants, and others at Constantinople, on out return from Armenia, called and volunteered the belief that the Armenian question could not be settled within the boundaries of that country, and that they were prepared to pass under a single mandate which should Include the other parts of the Turkish Empire. In a later written statement, however.' they modified this, stating that while "Different nations of this Empire may enjoy the help of the same mandatory power" they felt that to bring Armenia under the same system of administration as that of the Turks would defeat the object of development of Armenian Ideals, "because by assuring the individual rights of a people the national rights and 4 See Exhibit B. Joint letter, Oct. 15. 191. from Armenian Patriarch, Catholic Armenian Patriarchat, and the Vekil of Armenian Protestant Community. 90153-20--22
Md
Ideals of the same people can not necessarily be assured"; that "giving a good g6vernmebt to the whole Turkish Empire will not induce the Armenians to gather to their native land. They will still be a scattered people, etc." 'A party of distinguished Turks, including a former cabinet minister of high standing and a diplomat who for eight years represented his country at one of the European courts, stated that as bet-preen the independence of Turkey as It existed In 1914, and a mandate for the Empire given to the United States they greatly preferred the latter and believed that they spoke for the educated elasses of all Turkey. It has been very evident to this mission that Turkey would not object to a single disinterested power taking a mandate for her territory as outlined In the armistice with the Aies, and that it could be accomplished with a minimum of foreign soldiery, where an attempt to carve out territory for any particular region would mean a strong foreign force in constant occupation for many years. The aim of the Nationalist or National Defense Party, as its adherents style it, as stated by Mlustapha Kemal Pasha, its head, is the preservation of the territorial integrity of the Empire under a mandatory of a single disinterested power, preferably America. The mission, while at ivas, had a conference whir the t.ifs- of this party, which held a congress at Erzerum In July and one at Sivas In September. This movement has been the cause of much apprehension on the part of those Interested in the fate of the Armenians, to whose safety it has been supposed to portend danger. The leader, Mustapha Kemal Pasha, Is a former general officer in the Turkish Army, who commanded with distinction an army corps at the Dardanelles, and appears to be a young man of force and keen intelligence. He Is supposed to have resigned from the army to lead this movement. It sought, as a means to Its end, the overthrow of the Fetnd Pasha cabinet, which has since fallen, claiming that it was entirely under the influence of one of the great powers which itself desires a mandate for the Empire. While professing entire loyalty to the Sultan, the nationalist leader had gone to the extremity of cutting all official telegraph communications between the capital and the interior pending the removal of the cabinet. The fall of the Damad Ferld Pasha ministry In October would seem to put the Empire behind the movement, for the Turkish officials in the interior were already identified with IL In a statement given out on October 15, Mustapha Kemal I said: "The Nationalist Party recognized the necessity of the aid of an impartial foreign country. It is our aim to secure the development of Turkey as she stood at the armistice. We have no expansionist plans, but it is our convic. tion that Turkey can be made a rich and prosperous country if she can get a good government. Our Government has become weakened through foreign interference and intrigues. After all our experience we are sure that America Is the only country able to help us. We guarantee no new Turkish violences against the Armenians will take place." The events of the Greek occupation of Smyrna and the uneasiness produced by the activities and propaganda of certain European powers have so stirred the Turkish people ;n the long Interval since the armistice that the mission fears that an announcement from Paris at this time of an intention to carve from Turkey a State of Armenia, unless preceded by'a strong military occupa. tion of the whole Empire, might be the signal for M/assacres of Christians In every part of the country. There is no wisdom In now incorporating Turkish territory In a separate Armenia, no matter what the aspirations of the Armenians. Certainly it is unwise to invite trouble which may be avoided by the consolidation of the mandate region under a single power. Under one man. datory they will be neighbors. Under two or more they will be rivals, their small differences subjected to the Interminable processes of diplomatic repre. sentation, with the: m maintenance of duplicate and parallel establishments In many lines of governmental activity. Only under a single mandatory can the matter of ultimate boundaries be deferred, which is believed by this mission to be Important. in the proposition to carve an Independent Armenla from the Ottoman Empire there Is something to be said on the part of the Turk; namely, that his jects, "League for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Roumella'; "D" Gen. Iarbord's letter, Oct. 9, 1919 to Mustapha Kemal; " E," Declaration of the Congress of Siva; P,' Remlutlon of National Coagreog of Sivas addressed to Senate of the United States of America requesting that senatorial committee visit and Investigate conditions
within Ottoman Empire.
1 3See
E habits "C." Statement of Mustaph~i
Kemal Pasha concerning organization, ob-
NATIONAL REPUBLIC O
OHORGIA
329
people, even when all the refugees shall have returned to their homes, will be in the majority in the region contemplated for a reconstituted Armenia--and they were in the majority before the deportations took place--ever, though due, as it may be, to the gerrymandering of provincial boundaries and the partial ezitermination of a people. Notwithstanding his many estimable qualities, his culture, and his tenacity of racb and religion, the Armenian generally does not- endear himself to those of other races with whom he comes In contact. The Armenian stands among his neighbors very much as the Jew stands in Russia and Poland, having, as he does, the strong and- preeminent ability of that race. He incurs the penilty which attaches among backward races to the banker, the middleman, aand the creditor. Unjust as it may be, the sentiment regarding him is expressed by this saying current In the Near East: "The Armenian is never legally in the wrong; never morally in the right." Even the Arerican minsionary, who in so many instances has risked his life for his Armenian charges, does not as a rule personally like the Armenian as well as he does the more genial but indolent and pleasure-loving Turk. The Armenian is not guiltless of blood himself; his memory is long and reprisals are due, and will doubtless be made if opportunity offers. Racially allied to the wild Aryan Kurd he is cordially hated by the latter. Kurds appealed to this mission with tears in their eyes to protect them from Amenians who had driven them from their villages, appealing to be allowed to go back to their homes for protection against the rigorous winter now rapidly approaching on the high interior plateau. The Kurds claim that many of their people were massacred under the most cruel circumstances by Armenian Irregulars accompanying the Russian Bolshevists when the Russian Army went to pieces after the collapse of the Empire. Similar claim is made by the people of Erzerum, wlho point to burned buildings in which hundreds of Turks perished, and by the authorities of Hassan. Kala, who give the number of villages destroyed by the Armenians in their great plain as 43. According to British Consul Stevens, at Batum, these statements were verified by a commission which examined into the allegations and on which Armenians had a representation In Baku the massacre of 2,000 Azarbaijanese by Armeulans in March, 1918, was followed by the killing of 4,000 Armenians by Azarbaijanese In November of the same year. From the standpoint of this mission the capacity of the Armenian to govern himself is something to be tested under supervision. With that still In doubt the possibil. ity of an Armenian minority being given authority over a Moslem majority, against whom Its hearts are filled with rancor for centuries of tyranny, may well justify apprehension. There are very many who believe that the best elements of the Armenian race have perished. It is believed that with the reestablishment of order in their native country many of those who have emigrated to other countries will return. That, however, can only come with time, and even then it is doubted if many of the wealthy and Influential Armenians long domiciled In happier lands will return to their somewhat primitive ancient home, even though such absentees have raised their voices most loudly for an autonomous Armenia. Certainly with arbitrary boundaries on the Anatolia side determined only by Armenian wishes,*expediency, tradition, or even verified historical claims of former occupation, without regard to the present population, the mandatory powers for both Anatolia and Armenia should Inaugurate government by placing a cordon of trustworthy foreign soldiers from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. With a single power in con. trol of both peoples and boundaries unannounced except as they have hitherto existed, such difficulties would not arise. Against such combination of author. ity and postponement of delimitation of boundaries Is to be weighed the unchangeable belief of many that the Turk at the end of his tutelage will still be the Turk, bloodthirsty, unregenerate, and revengeful, and that it is unthink. able that Armenia shall ever again form part of t country which may be governed by him; that the sufferings of centuries should now be terminated by definite and permanent separation of Armenia from Turkey, and that. this plan seems to contemplate a tutelage of Indefinite length. To this the reply is that the Armenian should have no fear to submit his case to the League of Nations--the court of the world-and thnt he must li the meantime prove his capacity not only to govern himself but others, and that at the behest of the great powers a plebiscite could be had and the mandatory at any time be terminated by detachment of his territory from Anatolia as well as now and with much greater safety to him and convenience to his benefactors.
330
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF. OEOR0IA
The conclusion of the American military mission to Armenia is that the remedy for the existing conditions In Armenia and the Transcaucasus Is a mandatory control to be exercised by a single great power. The Armenian question can not be settled in Armenia. It can not be finally settled without answering two questlonq: What is to be done with Turkey? What is Russia going to do? Pending the ultimate settlement of thee questions the missl n believes that, for reasons #et ftoth, the power which takes a mandate for Armenia should also exercise a mandate for Anatolia, Roumelia, Constantinople, and Transcaucesia; the boindaries of the Turkish vilayets of Armenia and Anatolia and the Interior boundaries of Russian Armenia, Georgia, and Azarbaijan to remain substantially as they are for the present. The divisions of such mandate are an administrative detail to be worked out by the mandatory power. Good administration Indicates that there should be some Intermediate authority betwixme the provinces and the capital. A nalunti sulNlvlsh)11 of such a mandate as has been Indicated would probably be: itountelta, city of Constantinople (federal district), Anatolia, Armenia, dh..trlet of Trawscaucasia (less Russian Armenia). The Inclusion of the whole Turkish Empire under the government of a single mandatory would be simpler and proportionately more economical than to divide it. A plebiscite fairly taken would in all probability atk for an American mandate throughout the Empire. Syria and Mcsopotamia, however, not being considered essential to the settlement of the Armenian question or as being the field for possible American responsibilities and Interests In the Near East as contemplated in the instructions to the mission, because actually occupied by France and Great Britain at this time, have been considered by us as excluded from our considerations, as Is for a similar reason Arabia. In its belief that the Armenian problem Is only to be solved by a mandatory which should include also Constantinople, Anatolia, Turkish Armenia, and the Transceucasus, the mission has the concurrence of many Americans whose views by reson of long residence in the Near East are entitled to great weight. Such Americans are practically a unit In believing that the problems of Armenia, Anatolia, Constantinople, and Transcaucasia must be considered as an Inseparable whole. The mission has a strong conviction that the nation which may be Induced by its colleagues to undertake this mandate should be one prepard to steadfstly carry out a continuity of pol-cy for at least a generation, and to send only Its most gifted sons to leadership in the work without regard to political affiliations. Only on the certainty of continuity of a nonpartisan policy would the best men forsake their careers in their own country to take up its burdens in these eastern lands. No disinterested nation would undertake such a mandatory except from it strong sense of altruism and international duty to the peacb of the world in this breeding place of wars and at the unanimous wish of other parties to the covenant of the League of Nations. No duty of modern times would be undertaken under so fHerce a glare of publicity. Such nation would hold the center of the international stage with the spotlight from every foreign offik and from every church steeple In the world focussed upon It. No nation could afford to full, or to withdraw when once committed to this most serious and difficult problem growing out of the Great War. No nation Incapable of united and nonpartisan action for a long period should undertake it.
TiE CONDITIONS AND PRO13LM8 INVOLVED IN A MANDATE FOR TURKEY AND TRANSCAUCASIA
This report has heretofore endeavored to consider the conditions and questions of which it treats in the abstract sense applicable to any nation which might be induced to assume the task of a practical regeneration of this region. Its interest for our country, however, lies in the possibility that the United States may be called upon by the world to undertake the task, and the necessity therefore of kno%ing what it would mean for America. The problems for the United States would not be identical with those of any other nation which might undertake it. A not too sympathetic Old World. without pretensions to altruism or too much devotion to ideals, will expect of America In the Near East the same loft standards shown in Cuba and the Philippines--
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF OEOROIA
331
the developmentt of peoples rather than of material resources and commerce. Distance, our time-honored detachment from the affairs of the Old World, our Innocence from participation in the intrigues which have hitherto characterized Intercourse with the Turk, our freedom from bias through the necessty of considering moslem public opinion in other parts of the world, and the fact that we have no financial interest in the great foreign debt. of there Ottoman Empire, give America a viewpoint and an advantage In approaching the situation that are enjoyed by no other great power. A great part of the work of the mission has been devoted to a consideration of the situation as it would affect our own country should it be Invited to assume a mandate In the Near East. The problem as a whole has been kept in mind while Individual members of the mission have made special Inquiry into different matters of which knowledge is necessary to reach an IntelLigent appreciation of the difficulties to be solved in this region. Each of thesestudies constitutes a unit on the subject with which It deals, too important to justify the risk of an attempt at epitomizing for this report They are therefore submitted as appendice.% as follows: A. Political Factors and Problems, by Capt. Stanley K. Hornbeck, OrdnaneDepartment, United States Army. B. Government In Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Lieut. Col. Jasper Y. Briton, Judge advocate, United States Army. C. Public and Private Finance of Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Prof. W. W. Cumberland. D. Commerce and Industry In Turkey and Transcaucasia, by Trade Commissioner Eliot Grinnell Mears. E. Public Health and Sanitation, by Col. Henry Beeuwkea, Medical Corps, United States Army. F. Population; Industrial and Other Qualities; Maintenance, by Lieut. (ol. John Price Jackson, Engineers, United States Army. (. Climate, Natural Resources, Animal Industry, and Agriculture, by Lieut. Col. E. Bowditch, Infantry, United States Army. H. Geography, Mining and Boundaries, by MaJ. Lawrence Martin, General Staff. United States Army. 1. The Press of Turkey and Transcaucasila, by Mnj. Harold W. Clark, Infaiitry. United States Army. J. The Military Problem of a Mandatory, by Brig. Gen. George Van Horn Moseley, General Staff, United States Army. K. Transport and Communications In Asia Minor and the Traoscaucasus, by William B. Poland, engineer member of the mission. L. Bibliography.
TIfE MILITARY V5101.EM
Our country has so recently sent Its young manhood to war overseas, and the heart of the Nation is so sensitive to any enterprise which calls for Its sons to serve as soldiers in distant lands, that the greatest Interest attaches to the military problem Involved In any mandate to which our people may ever give consideration. The Immediate problems which would lie before the Army and Navy of a mandatory power in Turkey and Transcaucasia are: of any disorder attendant upon withdrawal of (a) Tie suppressioni occupying troops and the Initiation of the government. (b) The maintenance of order until a constabulary could be organized for the rural police of the mandatory region. (c) To help organize and train a native constabulary. (d) To constitute a reserve for moral effect; for posoible actual use in supplementing the local constabulary in case of emergency; and for the government in a region which has been governedprestige of the mandaf by force since the beginning of history. The Inauguration of a mandatory government would be followed at a very early date by the withdrawal of the foreign troops now occupying the region and by the dissolution, as soon as practicable, of the permanent military establishments now maintained by Turkey and Transcaucasla. The United states accepting the mandate at the request of the other great powers and of the peoples Interested, no resistance to her troops would be onicipated. On the contrary, they would doubtless be welcomed. No problem of external defense of the country occupied would exist.
-NATIONAL iIRPIJIIIC OF OKORGIA

(a) The present occupying force of the region under consideration, Roumella, Constantinople, Anatolia, and Transcaucasia, excluding five Greek divisions occupying Smyrna, Is the Army of the Black Sea and the troops in Cilicia, comprising about 60,000 of the British, French, Italian, and Greek Governments. The regular troops of Turkey and Transcaucasia to be disbanded In the same region at the convenience of the mandatory government aggregate about 92,000 men. The gendarmerie of Turkey amounts to about 30,000 men. The loss of man power In Turkey has been appalling, and too many men are still absent from work and carrying rifles. It is not thought that any serious disorder would attend this substitution of the troops of the mandatory power for the auuy of occupation and for the native regular forces. (b) During the formation of an efficient native constabulary, a period of six months to a year, small garrisons would have to be furnished along the railroads and in isolated towns, especially on the old frontiers, where feeling runs high between races. This would give security while the various nationals are being repatriated, reconstructing their homes, and adjusting themselves to new conditions. The suppression of outlaw bands, which already exist in some localities, and the formation of which in eastern countries invariably follows the disbandment of armies after a long war, would call for constant use of a certain number of United States troops pending the completion of the constablary organization for service. During this period the disarmament of the civilian population would be accomplished. (op The first duty of a mandatory would be to guarantee the safety of life and property through the country, and to this end Its earliest efforts should be directed to the establishment of a native rural police or constabulary for the suppression of brigandage, outlawry, and other crimes outside the towns. This force, with a military organization, should be a force of peace officers as that term is used in our own country, empowered to make arrests of criminals of all kinds, serve warrants, execute orders of arrest, etc. While decentralized in Its administration and destined eventually to operate In small bodies, it should be a Federal force, cooperating with but not serving under provincial officials. Its personnel should absorb the best elements of the present gendarmerie, and also provide suitable employment for deserving officers of the disbanded armies. For a considerable perlxi Its highest officers would necessarily be Americans, but as fast as the quality of the native officers justifies, the force should become native. The strength of the constabulary should be such as to enable it to take over the whole task of maintaining order outside the towns and release American troops at the earliest practicable date. Coincident with the organization of the constabulary would be the creation of efficient municipal police. (d) Considering the uncertain character of the neighboring pippulntlons, the traditional lawlessness of migratory Kurds and Arabs, and the Isolation of certain regions where the temptation to reprsals for past wrongs will be strong for at least a generation, a certain force must be kept in hand to supplement the native constabulary when needed. Such a force will also be necessary for general moral effect. Its mere existence will prevent organized disorder on a scale too large for a peace force to handle. Such a force would be stationed near the capital, trained for quick expeditionary work, and sent where needed. The character of the troops should be suited to the purpose for which used. For expeditionary purposes marines or infantry with artillery would be best. For moral effect in the interior and during the period of constabulary, organization cavalry would be preferable. A small, efficient air service should be maintained. The airplane is not only a means of very rapid communication, but its value for dealing with a distant small problem among half-wild tribes can not be overestimated. The country much resembles Mexico, and the conditions would be not unlike our border cavalry service. A regiment of railway engineers would be a necessity. During the initial period of the mandatory, troops 'Would be needed in connection with the general problem of sanitation and cleaning up, and an extra proportion of sanitary troops would be necessary. Estimates of the necessary number of mandatory troops vary greatly-from 25,000 to 200,000. Conditions change so rapidly that plans made to-day for the use of troops might be obsolete in six months. Uncertainty as to the time the mandate will be tendered and accepted make estimates merely approximate. Under conditions as they exist to-day the undersigned believes that a force of two American divisions, with several hundred extra officers, or a total force
NATIONAL( REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
83
of 59,000 would be ample. Such force would be specially organized; one a1 plane squadron; a minimum of artillery; not to exceed one regiment of 75's motorized; a minimum of the special services; four times the usual number of sanitary troops; four regiments of cavalry, with minor changes in organization at the discretion of the senior general officer on duty with the mandatory government. This force should be substantially reduced at the end of two years, and by 50 per cent at the end of the third year. After that some further reduction could be slowly effected, but the irreducible minimum would be reached at about the strength of one division. The annual cost for the force of the army above stated would be at the maximum: For the first year --------------------------------------------88, 50,000 At the eod of two years perhaps ------------------------------59.000, 000 At the end of three years --------------------------------------44,250,000 with thereafter a continuing appropriation of tlhat sum less such amount as the local revenues could afford, probably a very substantial traction of the cost. To offset our expenditures thare would be available ait least a part of the naval and military budget hitherto used for the support of the disbanded armies lit the region. In Turkey before the war this lotaled alut $6l,000,000 annually for the army, including $5,000,000 for the navy. The naval establishment should consist of a station ship for the capital, and probably one each for Smyrna, Mersiua, Batun, atid liaku. to meet local needs in quick transportation of troops. A transport of light druft capable of carrying a complete regiment should be permanently on station at the capital. Four to six destroyers would be needed for communication and moral effect. Collier. repair, and hospital service afloat should be in proportion. Old ships of obsolete type would probably answer for all except the stallion ship at the capital and the destroyers. Some ships of thte Turkish Navy. of which there are over 30, could doubtless be used with American crews soon to be replaced by natives. The naval establishment might not entail any additional Federal appropriations. Ships and personnel could probably be drawn from existing establishment; the only additional expense would probably be the difference In cost of maintenance in near eastern and home waters. It Is very important that a proper military and naval setting be given the mandatory government at the beginning. In no part of the world is prestige so important, and in no region have people been so continuously governed by force. The mandatory could at the outset afford to take no unnecessary risks among such a population in densest Ignorance as to our resources and our national traits.
CONCLUSIONS
This mission has had constantly In mind the moral effect to be exercised by its inquiry it the region visited. Very alarming reports had been received from Transcaucasia for several months before Its d2parture from France, particularly as to organized attacks by the Turkish Army impending along the old International border between Turkey and Russia. The itinerary of the mission through Turkey was planned with those reports before it and with the intention of observing as to their truth and, if possible, to exert a restraining Influence. We practically covered the frontier of Turkey from the Black Sea to Persia and found nothing to justify the reports. The Turkish Army is not massed along the border; their organizations are reduced to skeletons; and the country shows an appalling lack of people, either military or civilian. At every principal town through which we passed the chief of the mission held a conference wito the Turkish officials. Inquiry was made as to the Christian community, some were always Interviewed; the interest of America in its own mi.conarles and in the native Christians was invariably emphasized; the Armenian deportations, the massacres, and the return of the survivors were discussed on each occasion, as well as other matters intended to convince Turkish officials that their country is on trial before the world. The visit of the mission has had a considerable moral effect in securing the safety of Christian lives and property pending action by the peace conference. We would again point out that If America accepts a mandate for the region visited by this mission, It will undoubtedly do so front a strong sense of international duty, and at the unanimous de.ire-so expressed at least--of Its col-
NATIONiAL 81?UiILIC OF GEORGIA

Itues in the League of Nations. Accelng this diffliclt task without preyfously socurbg the assurance of conditions would be fatal to success. The Mated States should make its own conditions as a prelhninary to consldelatlon of the subject--certainly before and not after acceptance, for there are a muiitude of interests that Will conflict with what any American would condder at proper administratfoh of the couttty. Every istssible precaution against internflonal cmnnplicatious should be taken In advance. In our qidnloi there Ofto6ld be sptfic pledge& in terms of formal agreements with France and England and definite approval from Germany and Russia of the dispo.itions made of Turkey and Transcaucasla, and a pledge to respect them. Of particular importance are the following: Absolute control of the foreign relations of the Turkish Empire, ao ambassadoie, envoy, minister, or diplomatic agent to be accredited to Turkey, and the latter to send none such abroad. Concessions Involving exclusive privileges to be subject to review If shown to be contrary to the best interests of the State. Concessions undesirable from the standpoint of the mandatory upon which work has not been started to be canceled. Compensation to be allowed to holders when necessary. The system by which specified revenues are assigned for particular purposes to be discarded. All revenues to be controlled by the treasury and all creditors to look only to the treasury as the source of payment. Foreign control over Turkey's financial machinery to cease, meaning the dissolution of the council of administration of the Ottoman public debt, reserving the right to retain some individual members of the council as advisors because of the familiarity with Ottoman finances. All foreign obligations of the Empire to be unified and refunded. Those countries receiving territory of the Turkish Empire, e. g., Syria and Mesopotamia, to assume their reasonable share of the paper currency, of the foreign obligations, and of obligations for possible reparation payments. Abrogation, on due notice, of existing commercial treaties with Turkey. All foreign governments and troops to vacate territorial limits of mandate at dats to be fired by the mandatory power. Consent to many of these measures would not easily be obtained. Many nations now have some sort of financial control within the Ottoman Empire. and they would not see this control taken awuy without protest. It needs Ao argument, however, to show that the United States could not submit to having her financial policies controlled from foreign capitals. The refunding of the debt, possibly with a reduction of the capital amount, would rai6e storm of protest, but it should be insisted upon. Otherwise an Admerican AdmIunistratton would be embarrassed and run the risk of being discredited. The mission has not felt that it is expected to submit a recommendation as to the United States accepting a mandate in the Near East. It therefore simply submits the following summary of reasons for and against such action, baged on all information obtainable during 9ix weeks constant contact with the peoples of the region:
wRusofs FOR
REASON8 AGAIxST
1. As one of the chief contributors to the formation of the League of Nauons, the United States Is morally bound to accept the obligations and responsibilities of a mandatory power. 2. The insurance of world peace at the world's crossways, the focus of war infection since the beginning of history.
1. The United States has prior and nearer foreign obligations, and ample responsibilities with domestic problems growing out of the war. 2. This region has been a battle ground of militarism and Imperialism for centuries. There is every likely. hood that ambitious nations will still maneuver for Its control. It would weakenk our position relative to Monroe doctrine and probably eventually Involve us with a reconstituted Russia. The taking of a mandate in this region would bring the United States into the politics of the. Old World, contrary to our traditional policy of keeping free of affairs In the Easter; Hemisphere.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA 3. The Near East presents the greatest humanitarian opportunity of the sge-a duty for which the United States Is better fitted than any otheras witness Cuba. Porto Rico, Philip. pines, Hawaii, Panama, and our altru. istle policy of developing peoples rather than material resources alone. 4. America Is praetlcally the unani. nus choice andi fervent hope of all the 14opls InvOlved.
335
3. Ilumanltarlanlsm should begin at home. There Is a sufficient number of difficult situations which call for our action within the well-recognized spheres of American Influence.
4. The United States has in no way contributed to and Is not responsible for the conditions, political, social, or economic, that prevail in this region. It will be entirely consistent to decline the Invitation. 5. American philanthropy and charity are world wide. Such policy would commit us to a policy of meddling or draw upon our philanthropy to the point of exhaustion.
5. AmerIca Is already spending millions to save starving peoples in Turkey and Transcaucasla and could do this with much more efficiency if In control. Whoever becomes mandatory for these, regions we shall be still ex. Pected to finance their relief, and will probably eventually furnish the capi. tal for material development. 6. America is the only hope of the Armenians. They consider but one other nation, Great Britain, which they
fear would sacrifice their Interests to

Moslem public opinion as long as she controls hundreds of millions of that faith. Others fear Britain's imperialistic policy and her habit of staying where sh( hoists her flag.
For a mandatory America is not only the first choice of all the peoples of the Near East, but 6f each of the great powers, after itself. American power is adequate; Its record clean; its motives above suspicion. 7. The mandatory would be selfsupporting after an initial period of not to exceed five years. The building of railroads would offer opportunities to our capital. There would be great trade advantages not only In the mandatory region, but in the proximity to Russia, Roumania, etc. America would clean this hotbed of disease and filth as she has in Cuba and Panama.
0. Other powers, particularly Great Britain and Russia, have shown con. tinned interest in the welfare of Armenia. Great Britain is fitted by experience and government, has great resources In money and trained per. sonnel, .ind though she might not be as sympathetic to Armenian aspirations. her rule would guarantee security and justice. The United States Is not capable of sustaining a continuity of foreign polIcy. One Congress can not bind another. Even treaties can be nullified by cutting off appropriations. Nonportisanship is difficult to attain In our Government. 7. Our country would be put to groat expense. involving probably an increase of the Army and Navy. Large numbers of Americans would serve In a country of loathsome and dangerous diseases. It is questionable if railroads could for many years pay
Interest on Investments in their very
8. Intervention would be a liberal education for our people In world pol. Itles, give outlet to a vast amount of spirit and energy, and would furnish a shining example.
difficult construction. Capital for rail. ways would not go there except on Government guaranty. The effort and money spent would get us more trade In nearer lands than we conid hope for in Russia and Roumania. Proximity and competition would increase the possibility of our becomIng Involved in conflict with the policles and ambitions of states which now our friends would be made our rivals. 8. Our spirit and energy can find scope in domestic enterprises, or In lands south and west of ours. Intervention in the Near East would rob us of the strategic advantage enjoyed
"406
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF. GEORGIA through the Atlantic fihch rolls between us and probable foes. Our rep. utation for fair dialing might be Impaired. Efficient supervision of a mandate at such distance would be difficult or Impossible. We do not need or wish further education in world politics.
stop further 9. It would definitely massacres of Armenians and other Christians, give Justice to the Turks, Kurds, Greeks, and other peoples. 10. It would increase the strength and prestige of the United States abroad and inspire interest at home in the regeneration of the Near East. 11. America has strong sentimental interests in the region; our missions and colleges. 12. If the United States does not take responsibility in this region, it is likely that international Jealousies will result in a continuance of tho unspeakable misrule of the Turk. 13. "And the Lord said unto Cain, Where is Abel thy brother? And lie said: ' I know not; am I my brother's keeper?'" Better millions for a mandate than billions for future wars. 9. Peace pnd justice would be equally assured under any other of the great powers. 10. It would weaken and dissipate our strength which should be reserved for future responsibilities on the American continents and in the Far East. Our line of communication to Constantinople would be at the mercy of other naval powers, aud especially of Great Britain, with Gibraltar and Malta, etc., on the route. 11. These institutions have been respected even by the Turks throughout the war and the massacres; and sympathy and respect would be shown by any other mandatory. 12. The peace conference has definitely informed the Turkish Goverhment that it may expect to go under a mandate. It is not coec6!vable that the League of Nationj would permit further uncontrolled rule by that thoroughly discredited government. 18. The first duty of America is to its own people and its nearer neighbors. Our country would be involved in this adventure for at least a generation and in counting the cost Congress must be prepared to advance some such sums, less such amount as the Turkish and Transcaucasian revenues could afford, for the first five years, as follows:
- . - Al

1!H.9T YEAR
337
General government- -- $100,000,000 Communications, r a 1 I20,000,000 roads, etc ----------Relief, repatriation, ed50,000,000 ucation, etc ---------Army and Navy -------- 88, 500, 000 17,000,000 Sanitation ------------Total----------SECOND YEAR
275, 000, 000
General government ---- 75,000,000 Communications, r a i I 20,000,000 roads, etc----------13,000,000 Relief, education, etc-Army and Navy------- 59,000,000 7,264, 000 Sanitation, etc --------Total ----------THIRD YEAR
174, 264, 000
General government --Communications, r a I I roa ds, etc ----------Relief education, etc ---Army and navy--, ------Sanit atlon, etc ---------Total---------FOURTH Yi"AR
50,000,000
20,000,000 $4, 500,000 44,250,000 5,000,000
123,750,000
General government ---
25,000, 000 20,000, 000 4,500,000 44,250,000 3, 000, 000 96,750, 000
Communications, r a 1 roads, etc ----------Relief, education, etc ---Army and navy -------Sanitation, etc ---------,rotal -----------FIFTH YEAR
General governmentCommunications, railroads, etc ----------Relief, education, etc --Army and navy -------sanitation, etc ---------Total -----------SUMMARY
15,000, 000 20, 000, 000 4,500, 000 44,250,000 2,000,000 85,750,000
Total Total Total Total Total
first year-------- 275,500, 000 second year----- 174,264,000 third year------- 123,750,000 fourth year ------- 06, 750, 000 fifth year -------- 85,750,000 Grand total ------756,014,000
38
NATIONAL RIEPUBL|
OF OORO1A
14. Here Is a man's job that the world says can be better done by America than by any other. America can afford the money; she has the men; no duty to her own people would suffer; her traditional policy of violation did not keep her from successful participation in the Great War. Shall It be said that our country lacks the courage ta take up new and difficult duties? Wi;hout visiting the Near East it im not possible for un American to realize even gaintly the respect, faith, and affection with which our country is regarded throughout that region. Whether it is the world-wide reputation which we enjoy for fair dealing, a tribute perhaps to the crusading spirit which carried us into the Great War, not untinged with hope that the same spirit may urge us into the solution of great problems growing out of that conflict, or whether due to unselfish and impartial missionary and educational influence exerted for a century, it is the one faith which is held alike by Christian and Moslem, by Jew and Gentile, by prince and peasant in the Near East. It is very gratifying to the pride of Americans far from home. But it brings with it the heavy responsibility of deciding great questions with a seriousness worthy of such faith. Burdens that night be assumed on the appeal of such sentiment would have to be carried for not less than a generation under circumstances so trying that we might easily forfeit the faith of the world. If we refuse to assume It, for no matter -what reasons satisfactory to ourselves ,we shall be considered by many millions of people as having left unfinished the task for which we entered the war, and as having betrayed their hopes. Respectfully submitted. JAMES G. H[Aziop, Major generall, United States Army, Ohlef of Miesfon.
APPENDIX NO. 21
Tun Bm nms
TaA-UNmOMDILATION AND GuOMoIa
The report of the British trade-union delegation about Russia has provoked geat dissatisfaction in the socialist circles of all countries. It praises the Bolshevist rfglme more enthusiastically than any Communist patty has ever dared to do. Even the Russian Bolsheviks never painted their social organiso tion in such rosy color as the British delegates.' But what they said about Georgia surpassed even the expectations of the most orthodox Bolsheviks. The Georgian nation, fighting for Its national and political emancipation, met the representatives of a great nation trusting to find In them friends and defenders. But an unexpected thing happened, not heard of in the history of the labor struggle of the world-the delegates publicly ranged themselves against the oppressed with the oppressors; the entire prestige of the British trade. unions was used to Justify Moscow's conquering policy and enslavement of Georgia. How did they come to pronounce such a Judgment? Does their report give sufficient data to justify their Judgment In favor of the Soviets and their accusation of social democracy?
THE UCONOMIO CONDITION IN (ISURGIA'
The report on Georgia begins with an economic analysis stating: "And no one who visits the country now and knows what its conditions we* can doubt that materially It is prospering as It never did under Menshevig rule"- p. 210). To prove this statement the author quotes some figure& It Is sufficient for us to compare these figures with those published by the Bolsheviks In Georgia In order to see their worthlessness. So, for Instance, the report says that the cultivated land In 1920 under the Mensheviks was 1,270,000 dessiatlnes, whilst in 1923 under the Bolsheviks It was 1,800,000 (P. 208). The untruth of these figures is evident as in the whole of Georgia there Is not so much land fit cultivation. "The Communist" (No. 06,1925) Itself admits that there for is only 1,430,000 dessiatines of such land. As even in the most advanced countries not al' arable land Is cultivated, It Is natural that in Georgia the amount of cultivated land Is considerably less than the amount given by the Communist. The commissar of agriculture In Georgia published In the Communist the following figures: Deeslatlnes (a) Land under the plough --------------------------------616,000 (b) Land used for vineyards ------------------------------30,071 (c) Land used for cotton -------------------------------4,500 (d) Land used for tobacco ----------------------------------4,020 Total --------------------------------------------654,591 If we add the land used for gardens and vegetable gardens (35,000 dessiatines), then we get a total of about 700,000 desslatines cultivated land. The delegation writes that the export in 1920 (under the Menshevik Government) was 903,000 poods, and In 1923 (under the soviets) 12,609,000 poods (p. 203). In reality In 1920 there were 10,70.3,031 poods of manganese exported. Tbe delegation's praise of the rfgime of oppression and misery under which the working classes and the whole Russian nation is living is sure to call forth the ludination of every Impartial reader. AWe are far from wshing to repreeut the period of Georgian Independence as one of economic prosperity. The country, exhausted by four years of war and Just emel from the turmoil of the revolution, experienced many economic and financial dlfficultl it had to mobilize all its resources to meet them. But as the people were not exploded from without, and a free, democratic rfglme gave the whole nation a chance of helping in the developing of national resource, Georgia's economic life during the Independce was in a far better condition than under the Bolshevist regime.
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA These figures were published by the Bolsheviks in their book, Statistics of Manganese for 1918-1923 (pp. 45-6). As is known, the decrease of export under the soviet r~glme Is not accidental, but the result of the r~glme itself. Further: The delegation states that there were 15,000 poods raw silk eibous in 1920, but 50,000 poods, according to the Bolsheviks (Communist paper Zaria Vostoka, February 25, 1925). According to the delegation, the general value of state production In Georgia was 7,000,000 gold roubles in 1923 (p. 209), whIlst the official Bolshevik figures state 4,670,550 roubles for 1923-24 tZarla Vostoka, February 25, 1925). 'The decrease of trade and Industry under the Bolsheviks Is also shown by the decrease in the number of industrial workers; but the delegation attempts to show how "the number of Industrial worker- ras doubled under the Bolfrom 60,689 in 1920 to 95,777 in 1923 (p. 209). The officini Bolshevik bevfl statistics say, on the contrary: "In Georgia there are 8,123 industrial estabIshments, with 7,700 workers. The Communist, May, 1924.) If we take six lndustries--manganese,. coal, tobacco, hides, alcohol, and soap Industry-we Sad that the total number of workers engaged in them was 5,098 In 1919 and 8,5 in January, 1925 (see the Communist, April 5, 1925). Th's is a decrease of 45 per cent. If the percentage of workers employed shows the econom'e condition of the country, then the increase of 25,000 unemployed workers in 1925 compared with 1020 indicate only half Its former industrial prosperity and not double, as the delegates try to make out. Generally, the figures given by the delegation do not correspond to the figures furnished by the Bolsheviks themselves. Whence this difference? It must not be forgotten that to g;e foreigners lnformat'on about the real economic condition of a soviet country Is called economic e.p'onage by soviet law and is punished with the utmost severity, even with death; consequently no Bolshevik, and still less a soviet official, could give tie delegation trustworthy figures without risking such penalty. However, In the official organs the soie authorities sometimes give information more or less approaching reality. As the delegation had with them experts knowing Russian they should not have allowed themselves to be tricked; they might at least have acquainted themselves with the official Information published by the soviets. The administration of the soviets has thrown the country far back compared with the period of Menshevik rule through the foreign, economic, and pol.tical condition combined, for the last four years have been more favorable than at the time of Independence of Georgia. The Great War came to an end In 1918; the Dardanelles, which are the only outlet for Georgia to Europe, were reopened by the Sevres treaty In 1920. During nearly the whole time of her Independence (May, 1918, to February, 1921), Georgia was cut off from the world's markets. In the soviet period International pre-war relations were resumed, and also the Russian market was opened up again; neverthelemm the economic condition got worse. According to Bolshevik statistics the land for wine growing has diminished by 52 per cent, the quantity of horned cattle by 20 per cent, and of other small cattle by 29 per cent. In connection with this there was a decrease of export produce-wool, hides, bristles, meat, etc. (The Communist, April 7, 1925). The area under tobacco diminished by 60 per cent compared -with prewar time; It fel from 15,880 desslatines to 6,000 dessiatines; the cultivation of tea diminished by 72 per cent (in 1914, 1,383,317 pounds; in 1924, 376,000 pounds) ; cotton decreased by 60 per cent; the production of coal, which was 5,500,000 poods in 1920 under the Menshevist rule, fell 30 per cent, and was 3,836,462 poods in 1925 (The Communist, February 25, 1925) ; spirit distilling diminished 74.2 per cent compared with pre-war times (The Communist, April 5. 1925). In the tobacco Industry the fabrication of cigarettes fell 73 per cent, and of smoking tobacco 92 per cent. (The Communist, No. 46, 1924.) Besides, this ruined and beggared country is to the utmost exploited by the trade policy of Moscow. Imposing a prohibitive duty on foreign goods. Moscow sends instead her bad nnd expensive good from Russian communist trusts. Comparing 'aris pries of nuiufacturc- bouts, sugar, and other articles-with Moscow prices of the corrsponding articles of Russian origin we find the latter from 70 to 300 per cent higher. Only on sugar and manufactured goods Georgia overpays Russia 100,000,000 French francs. And If we consider besides the great quantity of industrial and agricultural goods sent from Russia to Georgia we get no less than 200,000,000 francs paid by Georgia to Moscow as a yearly gift because the ports of Georgia are artificially closed for foreign. goods. Is this not a barefaced colonial robbery system?
SATIONAL REPUBLIC OF 6EOBOI

IFINACLL CONDITION Or 03030O1
341
The trade-union report expresses its conviction that Georgia was saved from financial ruin by the Bolshevik administration. In reality the present financial condition of Georgia is as deplorable as the economic. And it can not be else; finances are closely connected with the economic and political condition of the country, forming one entity. Comparing the data of the financial condition of Russia and Georgia on the eve of the occupation and the changes in the financial condition of Georgia after the occupation, we see that the Bolsheviks not only did not save the country from ruin, but, on the contrary, precipitated It into an unprecedented financial misery. In January, 1921, a month before the invasion of Georgia by the Russian red army, there were in circulation in Russia 1,168 milliard paper rubles; in Georgia 9,768,000,000 rubles, which means on every Inhabitant of Russia (130,000,000 population) 8,907 rubles; in Georgia (2,800,000 population) 848 rubles. At the shme time the pound equaled over 1,000,000 Russian rubles, but only 11,000-12,000 Georgian rubles, so that the exchange value of the Georgian money was one hundred times higher than that of the soviet money. After the occupation of Georgia by Moscow's army the local Bolshevik authorities, under pressure from the people who refused to take soviet money, decided not to Introduce into Georgia the Moscow ruble and continued the financial policy of the Social-Democratic government; to go on with the Issue of the old paper money with the signatures of the President and Minister of" Finances of the national Georgian Government. Only at the end of 1928 Georgian finances were leveled with those of Russia by abolishing the financial autonomy of Georgia and handing over to Moscow all the resources of the country. Georgia has no longer the right of having its own mission or an independent financial policy; the Georgian post and telegraph stamps were abolished, the railways were taken over by Russia. generally the Georgian ministry of finances was abolished and the rights of Georgia over her own budget was reduced to a minimum. By the existing law'the central treasury of the Soviet Union receives the following income: Direct taxes (e. g., agricultutai tax, industrial tax, temporary State tax), stamp tax, and indirect taxes. Further, the revenue from the 'nonunion establishments and of the union commissariats, State revenue, revenue from trade and industry, from loans concerning the union, and local revenue From the central treasury Georgia receives for her ow..t needs only so much and In such way as the central executive committee in Moscow yearly allows. In consequence of this appropriation by Moscow of Georgia's revenue and rights of fixing the budget Georgia has a beggarly budget to meet the expenses of the country. It is only necessary to compare the budget of the former Independent Georgia and that of occupied Georgia in order to see this. The last budget of Independent Georgia which was carried out (June 1, 1919-June 1, 1920) was 3.250.000,000 roubles. The exchange value of the Georgian rouble was then between 300 and 1,300 roubles for 1; taking the average as 800 roubles equals fl, the budget amounted to 4,062,000, or 40,000,000 gold rouhles.' Now, let us take the last soviet budget for 1924-25. the analysis of which we find In the Communist of March 15, 17, and 18, which gives these figures: The budget for the whole of Transeaucasia Is 20,800,000 roubles, equal to 3,000,000; that is to say, 1,000,000 less than the budget of independent Georgia alone. Of this pittance Moscow takes for herself 14,300,000 roubles
S Mr. Purcell, In his answer to Jordanla's letter In the Daily Herald on the finances of Georgia when free and when occupied, writes that the greater part of the revenue of free Georgia must bp traced to the sale of confiscated land to the peasants. But he gives no figures to prove his statement, simply affirming that there were revenues from the sale of land, because those figures would have entirely contradicted his assertion. From the sum received in 1910-20 (771,059,121 roubles) for to the peasants, purely technical expenses of the State during the sale of the land the agrarian reforms (as measuring, etc.)swallosed up the greater part, Introduction of and in realty the treasury received only 2,455.670 roubles, that Is no more than 0.3 per the whole amount, according to this calculation a net 5.000.000 roubles shouldcent ofbeen have received In 1920-21 from the total purchase sum of 8,552.414,771 roubles, which is 0.04 per cent. Project of the State accounts, expenses, and contracts for 1920-21, pages 51 and 198.
NATIONAL BRPUBLIO 01. GEORGIA and only by exception leaves it this year at the disposal of the Transcaucasian authorities, so that the budget will dispose this year of 15,500,000 roubles. This general Transcaucasia budget is divided in the following way: Transcaucasian federal administrates 7,00,000 roubles; Georgia 10,800,000 roubles; Amerbeijan, 8000,000; Armenia 3,00,000. So that the budget of Soviet Georgia is four times less than that of independent Georgia. From the 29,000,000 budget only 18,000,000 Is covered by revenue from the Tsanacaucasa treasury; the remaining 11,000,000 are a "deficit." If we add those 14,000,000 which by law belong to the central Government, then the "deficit" becomes 25,000,000. So that In reality the sum at the disposal of all the Transcaucasia Republics by soviet law equals 4,000,000 roubles, of which Georgia receives less than 2,000,000. The starved condition of Georgian fnances and all Transcaucasia Is explained by the fact that the chief branches of local Industry, as oil, manganese, pipe lines, railways, post and telegraph, transport, etc., are, as we said before, brought directly under the central Government, and their revenues are going to Moscow; that Is to say, Moscow simply robs the Transcaucasian people and keeps them enslaved. Moscow in every way cuts down the budget of the Transcaucasian Republics, condemning them to starvation. The Transcaucasian budget Is cut down this year compared with ltst year by 7,000,000 roubles, whilst the budget of the union has increased by 357,000,000; the whole reserve fund of Transcaucasia is reduced to 14,500,000 roubles-that is, by 56 per cent-whilst the general union reserve fund Is increased by 300 per cent, etc. But even this miserable budget was only passed with great difficulty at the last session of the Union Central Executive Committee In Tiflis. The President of the Transcaucasian Government, Orakhvelashvlll, said, in defense of his budget: We must understand that we had till 1924 our mission in Tranacaucasia, and till October of the past administrative year we had our budget. During the past two or three years we have been trying to manage with our means and to adapt ourselves to a certain definite level of expenses. I think that not one member of the central executive committee of the union will create such a position that that level and that condition of culture which we found in Georgia will be lowered by us because the necessary sums will be cut off. (Zaria Vostoka, May 8, 192.) The intention of Moscow to reduce Georgia to the position of a backward corner of Russia, and to make her again a simple province of Russia, has been accomplished; Georgia has been robbed of the last remnant of Independence, vis, her own budget Besides, Georgia has no longer the right usually belonging to local autonomy, that is to draw up her own budget, based upon the needs of %hepopulation, and, in agreement with this, to impose taxes; Georgia is obliged ,to fix her expenses as the Central Government Is pleased to allow; the elemautary right of taxing herself as a territorial uwit has been taken away. It is evident that the trade-union delegation bad no ground to praise Moscow's administration in Georgia and to state that Georgia had her own status and budget (p. 207). On the contrary, she has not her own budget or any financial rights.
TIIE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT
The delegation devotes a special chapter to the cooperative movement in Georgia, but does not give any facts about the whole, but only small details (p. 22). Evidently the delegates found that domain not suitable for their purpose, but decided to praise everything Bolshevik they considered It neces. sary to be enthusiastic also about the cooperative movement. In matter of fact, the cooperative movement is In a miserable condition. barely existing on State subsidies and by robbing the people. It could not be different: If the economic life Is ruined, the cooperative movement can not flourish. Though membershil, of cooperative socleties is obligatory, ft the end of 1924 there were, according to official figures: 1. In the Union of Agricultural Cooperative Societies -------------20,590 2. In the Union of Consumers' Societies ---------------------------110,000 8. In the Union Zakhtpo ----------------------------------12,236 . Total In all cooperative societies in Georgia, 142,826 members, and the yearly turnover was 11.60,935 roubles (The Communist, Nos. 45, 65, 73, 192).
NATIONAL RElPUBLIC OF GEORGIA
* Whilst during the independence of Georgia, in the year 1918-19, there were: 1. In the Cooperative Credit Societies (then changed Into agricultural societies) ------------------------------------------- 148,367 2. In the Union of Consumers' Societies ----------------------- 127,750 276,117 Total --------------------------------------------with a yearly turnover of 25,310,52 roubles. In 1920 the number of members of the consumers' societies reached 362,78k of which 90 per cent belonged to the central cooperative organization. (See "The Cooperative Movement in Georgia," published by the Central Cooperative Union, and also "La Georgie Cooperative" by Victor Serwy, Brussels, 192.) .'The ruin of the cooperative movement went side by side with the economic ruin of the country. Having seized power In Georgia, the Bolsheviks used their pollce against the free cooperative societies, terrorizing and exiling prominent cooperators. Finally, under this terror the cooperative societlew found themselves In the hands of the communists where their Cheka methods were also introduced. (See V. Serwy. "Lit Georgie Cooperative," where copies of the police orders are given.) The people answered by passive resistance and by leaving the movement whilst the cooperative societies were turned into communist monopoly shops where the population is obliged to sell Its produce for a pittance, and where they must buy at high prices the goes of Moscow State trusts. Cooperation, which was a weapon to help the people, has become a means towards their enslavement. And free private trade has now become one of the claims of the masses. The eevtomle activity of the soviets in Georgia has taken the form of ruining industry, agriculture, finances, trade, cooperative movement--everything on which independent Georgia was built up. Finally, the people rose in defence of their freedom, their' Independent economic and political existence.
TlE RISING
The delegation arrived In Georgia soon after the rising, when the villages, set on fire by the soviet punitive expeditions, were still smoking and the blood of thousands of innocent vWctims was still fresh. But the delegation did not investigate this condition on the spot; they (lid not visit the provinces and the districts in revolt; they did vat question the oppressed; yet they delivered their final verdict, maintaining that "there is In Georgia no active discontent with the soviet system," and that the Menshevik " leaders living comfortably in Paris," who are supported "by the financial and commercial combines interested in the oil and manganese wealth of the regions," led astray the simple people. (Report, pp. 211 and 212.) Verily, a bureaucratic explanation of the people's despair! The people are in favor of the revolt, and, at the same time, they are satisfied with the regime I The happy rebels revolt against their own happiness! The delegates, describing the economic national prosperity of the Georgians, can not understand why "the people revolt." It is simply a puzzle-happiness and contentment have driven them mad! But had they tried to look at the event impartially, the mystery would have been cleared up. Strange though it may seem, the Bolsheviks themselves showed a greater frankness in this matter than their British advocates. The whole soviet press, including the central organs, made it their duty to study the causes of the revolt, and, as a result, a number of decisions were arrived at. These conclusions completely contradict the statement of the delegation that the country enjoys "economic prosperity," and quite clearly confirm our assertion that Georgia is on the verge of economic ruin. The President of the Inion of Socialist Soviet Republics, Mr. Kalinin, who toured himself the regions of the risig, describes the situation thus: "One remarks among the peasantry, If not economic prosperity, at least greater culture than, for instance, in the central regions of Russia. Generally speaking, the population of the villages in western Georgia resembles very closely the town population; the language is that of a town; the percentage of Intellectuals Is considerable; the clothes worn by the Inhabitants are similar to those worn by the townspeople. The impression one receives is that as If one were in a health resort full of town inhabitants." (Zarla Vostoka, March 27, 1925.)
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA * This urban character of the villages is explained by the Insufficiency of the land owned by the peasantry, who in consequence are compelled to look for work in the towns and thus augment the pittance derived from their land. The Georgian peasant owns land sufficient to keep himself busy in the village for five months of the year. During the remaining seven months he Is an Industrial worker. The president of the Transcaucasian Government, Mr. Orakhvelashviii, in his report to the last session of the union central executive committee In Tiflis, described in the following words the economic position of the peasants: "The soviet rdime found itself unable to do much for the peasantry; there was not enough land to be distributed. We could not increase or improve the production. We only have constructed there a short railway line, but this can net maintain them. What Is required is food, clothing, footwear, etc. We must take into consideration the great unemployment among the peasant population among the small land-holding peasants, who before the war obtained supplementary earnings by industrial employment In the ports of the Black Sea from Batum to Odessa. These peasants, who worked In the docks and ports, have had a sort of political schooling-most of them can even cite by heart passages from Marx and Kautzky-and now they Idle'at home, unable to procure even maize flour or salt," (Zarla Vostoka, March 6 and 7, 1925.) Thus the Georgian peasants, who, owing to insufficiency of land, were compelled to supplement their meager earnings by industrial employment, are now deprived of this source of income and tied to the village where, half-starving, they drag on a miserable existence. "The fundamental cause of dissatisfaction," writes a Bolshevist organ, "is the economic situation. There is not enough land. If anyone possesses eighttenths ktsev (eight-tenths acre) of land, he is regarded as a very rich man. Formerly the peasants did the industrial work and had a supplementary income, but to-day they can not obtain this kind of work." (Zarla Vostoka, March 14, 1925.) To the unemployed peasants must be added the unemployed Industrial workers, whose number, according to the British labor delegation, reaches 28,000. The majority of these have returned to their villages, thus increasing the general poverty and dissatisfaction. In Georgia happened the same as in Russia--disorganization, almost complete destruction of industry, dispersion of labor, loss of employment by the masses. The difference is only that in Russia, thanks to the enormous estates, there was enough land for everyone, and millions of proletarians returned to agriculture. In Georgia, with its insufficiency of land, the proletarians, thrown out of work by the disorganization of industry, remain without employ. meant, and in the villages they swell the ranks of the discontented, the potential army of revolt. Moreover, the soviet regime has reduced the population to dire poverty not only through the disorganization of industry, but also through its trade policy. The Black Sea ports have been brought almost to a complete standstill as a result of the introduction of prohibitive duties. Batum and Poti are dead as far as trade is concerned. The agricultural produce has no market or Is bought up by the soviets at an absolutely contemptible price. The abovementioned Orakhvelashvill, describing the main branches of agriculture, says: "Our wine-growing industry is threatened with complete annihilation unless we find Immediately some means that will create favorable conditions for the disposal of its products." The tea crop has increased, but "this Increase is a burden to the producer. So far even the production of 1923 has not been realized. The wool has been lying unsold up til almost very recently, and we were compelled to take steps to obtain from the Center the necessary permit to sell abroad the goods in question." The production of silk cocoons has attained 60 per cent of that prior to the war, but in this respect, too, "we have failed the peasantry In the sense that we found ourselves unable to provide the necessary credit, in consequence of wbich our cooperative societies effected payments Irregularly, and the peasants evinced some dissatisfaction on this ground." These statements of Orakhvelashvili were confirmed by the peasants themselves when questioned by Kalinin, during the latter's tour of the Georgian villages. "The most serious question," he was told by an old peasant, "is the absence of markets. We can not sell our produce. And, then, the agricultural taxes are not correctly distributed, and we peasants have hardly any voice at all in this distribution." About the sale of cocoons, the peasants told
345
him: "Formerly the price of a pood was 15 to 20 roubles; at present, we are not allowed to sell our cocoons In the open market, but are ordered to deliver them to the cooperative societies, which pay, us 10 roubles a pood. And can one buy to-day with 10 roubles the things that formerly could have been bought with less?" ('aria Vostoka, March 14, 1925.) Thus, the peasants not only can not augment their income by casual industrial employment but they can not even market the meager produce of their land and cottage industry. To all of this must be added the burden of agricultural taxes and the method of their collection. This is what the Bolshevik delegates had to say on this question to the congress of soviets of Georgia: Delegate from Abkhasia: "We have paid the whole 100 per cent of the agricultural taxes, but the taxes were so enormous that they were a great strain on the population. The overwhelming majority of the population are very poor, and the peasants demand that the taxes be reduced to a minimum." Delegate from Kakheti: "It was very difficult for *he Kakhetian peasants to pay the taxes. The peasants of one region decided, in order to pay taxes, to sell 250 head of cattle, and with this view they approached the cooperative society, the bank, and the government, but no one would buy their cattle. In the end, the peasants were compelled to sell the animals to middlemen almost for nothing." (Communist, No. 84, 1925.) Of the same nature were nearly all the reports of other delegates. The taxes literally break the backbone of the peasantry. The prisons are full with peasants who could not pay their taxes, and only the amnesty of last March set them free, which freedom, however, may be supposed to be temporary. The.whole Georgian people are mercilessly ground between the Bolshevist millstones. Independent social-democratic Georgia knew no unemployment, crushing taxes, or the absence of markets for agricultural produce, as the country developed then along the lines of normal economic progress. Is there, then, anything to be surprised at if the people are determined to fight for the recovery of that Independence, to fight against the occupation which has brought them only poverty, oppression, and misery? (Soviet of People's ComThe president of the Moscow "Sovnarkom" missaries), Rykoff, states that "here, in Georgia, there are groups of peasants who do not regard the Moscow Government as their own," and advises the Georgian communists to take all necessary steps to bring the whole of Georgia under the centralist system of Moscow. (Zarla Vostoka, March 4, 1925.) The soviet occupation has deprived of work not only the workers and the peasants, but also the great majority of Georgian intellectuals. Kallnin offers the out-of-work Intellectuals employment outside Georgia, which means that they must leave their country, perhaps for ever. (Zar~a Vostoka, March 15, 1925.) Independent Georgia had no unemployment of intellectuals, as their forces were utlzed in the various fields of national reconstruction. Why can luot any work be found for them now? The answer is that Georgia, having lost independence, has lost her national institutions and state organizations, and her intellectuals find themselves thrown overboard. The Bolshevist statistics confirm that among the civil servants in Georgia only 50 per cent are Georgians; In Tiflis only 37 per cent (Communist, No. 100, 1924), the remaining officials being non-Georgians, newcomers, who use the Russian language in their departments. The employment of Georgian intellectuals in their native land would necessitate the sanction of the Georgian language as the language of state departments, and this Is contrary to the wishes of Kalinin. The latter wants to have in Georgia the Moscow Government with Moscow's language; to &ttain this, the Georgian Intellectuals must be got rid of--the well-known method of the Tsarlst r6gimre! The central executive committee of the U. S. S. R., taking into consideration the above-mentioned results of the investigation by the Bolsheviks of the causes of the rising, made the following declaration at their session of March 7, 1925: "The problems of first importance for the soviet authorities In Transcaucasia are: Organization of factories for local cotton and wool, also the cocoons; restoration and operation of the works at Batum, Zangezurl, and Allaverdi; the erection of tol refineries at Batum; the enlargement of timber mills, and the introduction of modern methods in the forest industry," etc. In short, restoration and development tof the industries which ceased activity with the advent of Bolshevism.
NATIONAL' REPUBLIC OF GEOROIA Thus, the chief causes of the rising of the Georgian people are not the machinations of the Menqheviks, but the economic and national conditions prevalent in Soviet Georgia. All the active sections of the populationworkers, peasants. intellectuals--who created independent Georgia and her Social.Democratic government, having lost their national freedom, found themselves deprived, at the same time, of the possibility of economic and political activity awl progress. The only way out of this situation is the fall of the Moscow tyranny.
SOMS
" HIOR POLITI
"
Explaining In their own way the causes of the existing movement of the Georgian people to regain Independence, the delegation writes: "The medieval Independence of Georgia has never been forgotten by its people, and in spite of compulsory incorporation in the Russian Empire for over a century, they continued to struggle for full sovereignty. * * 0 The insurrection in September last probably had the sympathy of a majority of Georgians, and would have had their support had it succeeded," etc. (pp. 217, 208, 211, etc.). Thus, the delegation has no doubt that Georgia is fighting for her independence, for freedom. Every Socialist, every honest Democrat and friend of freedom would have drawn from this the only possible conclusion, viz, to support the people in their struggle and to condemn the annexation. But the authors of the report draw quite a contrary conclusion-they condemn this struggle for freedom and support the annexation. Without much ado. they maintain the idea " that it If ti the interests of the workers and peasants of Caucasta and of the world that inclusion of the Transetaucaslan Federation In the Union of Socialist Rtssla should continue" (p. 217). Comrade Adler calls this interpretation "the greatest shame for the labor movement." (See his pamphlet "The Anglo.Russian Report." p. 27. English edition). And never. indeed, has the right of a nation to self.determination been so roughly brushed aside. The authors of the report, probably, thought that the easiest way was to side with the conquerors. Having so openly deserted the position of the International socialism, the delegation try to cover their retreat by considerations of "high politics." They write: "Transcaucasia is a country where the most powerful of the strategic and economic interests now controlling the world come into collision. For in Transcaucasia, the west, headed by Great Britain and France, is competing with the east, healed by Russia and Turkey, for economic control of oil and manganese resources of Immense Importance and for the strategic command of the Asiatic Continent" (p. 202). In short, there are In this country national riches; the great States of Great Britain, France, Russia, and Turkey are after them, and the only solution is to hand this country over to Russia I But why this preference? The deregation is giving a present, not of a desert but of a country Inhabited by a people who do not want to be given away as a gift. But the delegates do not take any notice whatsoever of the people. They concern themselves only with the great States competing for foreign territories and support only one of them. In other words, having abandoned the socialist point of view, the delegation adopts the imperialist one, which denies to the peoples the right to a free existence. The political conception of the delegation is quite clear. The country which, by Its economic importance and strategical position, may eventually become an object of friction between the competing States must be given to one of the competitors, and * * * international peace henceforward will reign forever. With such a conception only one conclusion is possible, namely, Transcaucasia must be given to to Rusla; Mesopotamia with Mosul to Great Brltain; Mexico to the United States of America, etc.; that is, the division of the world among the great powers, which, in the language of the diplomats. means the "delimitation of spheres of influence." The delegation sim:"' uplhiil i:mllerin!l-n. lit i it not suffh.intly k,,wn that qlU(.h an apparently simple solution of the question--the ignoring of tie rights and interests of nationalities--has always been the source of wars? A world founded up conquest-that is the policy of the oppressors. A world founded on freedom and the free will of the peoples-that is the policy of the oppressed, the policy of socialist democracy.
34?
By adopting the point of view of the "delimitation of, spheres of influence" the delegation continues in regard to Transcaucasia the policy of Mr. LloydGeorge, a policy which Tehitcherin revealed at the recent session of the central executive committee of all Russia: "Following on the evacuation by the British of Batum, Lloyd-George informed Comrade Krassin that England world not interfere in the mutual relationship of Russia and Transcaucasia and that he (Lloyd-George) regarded Caucasia as the sphere of influence of the Soviet Republic,' (Communist, March 5, 192G.) This statement makes It clear that Moscow embarked- upoI Its conquett of Georgia and Traseaucasia with the blessings of Lloyd George and his Gov. ernment, and now the Delegation of the lBritish Trade Unions approve of the policy of conquest by Moscow. The Delegation could not maintain a 8ocialLst policy; they lost their way In an imperialistic point of view. and write: "It had become for Georgla a choice between Turkish or Russian occupation, and the Russians gave them back their full territories and a very full autonomy, which they would rot have got from the Turks" (p. 207). As a matter of fact, this is all wrong. Independezit Georgia was in peaceful relations with Turkey. If Turkey received new territory in Transcauca ia, it was owing to the BoLheviks who at Brest-Litovsk ceded to Turkey the Georgian provinces of Batum and Ardakhan, and the Armenian territory, of the Kars district. Thanks to the victory of the Allied Powers, the lost provinces were returned to Georgia, who retained them up till the time of the invsion, by the Moscow Armles in 1921. By the agreement of March 10th of the same year, when Georgia was still defending herself against the Russian Army, the Moscow Goverunient, without consulting the Georgians, handed over to the Turks half of the Batum province and the whole of the Ardakhan district. 'I'hu, owing to Sovlet Russia. Georgia lost not only her independence, but 10,000 square kilometers with a population of 250,000. This ceded territory contains, antiong others, rich coPier mines with estimated deposits of 6,60,000 tons. invaluable forests. etc. Such are the facts, and yet the Delegatews assure us that -the tusslaus gave them back their whole territories * * 4" The delegation even believed that "Moscow influenced Angora to return llatum to Georgia." To return what Georgia already possessed. Having no serious facts to Justify the occupation, the delegation Is driven to use such fantastic Justification. Of the same nature Is their second statement, namely, that Georgia was granted "a very full autonomy." The coun. try that has not even its own budget, Its own fiscal system, Its own expenses and revenue-is autonomous! It by this word we are to understand the right to terrorize the population, to shoot the Inhabitants without preliminary trial, then autonomy is verily granted to the Teheka. Thee Is no other form of autonomy existing in Georgia. The system of government Introduced is that of governing through the special representation of the Moscow center, who replace the former commissaries. There are special representatives of war, trade, finance, aind other departments. By this the vice-regal system of government of tsarism has been reinstated. Nowhere Is any government at present so centralized as in the Union of Socialist Soviet Russia. The great Russians are the real masters in the whole of the "Union." Union, federation, autonomy are words intended for foreign dupes. In Russia and in Georgia everyone knows that there exists no union or federation, but only the all-powerful Rtsslan communist party.
THE TEUROR
The delegation of the lri1h trade-u ions do not anywhere in their report mention a word about the unprecedented persecution by the Bolsheviks of the Socialists and of tie old (now illegal) trade-unions in Georgia. They speak enthusiastically and with admiration about the state trade-unions, but pass over In .ilence tht' forcible suppreslon of the Independent trade-unions, the arrest and banishment of their leaders, and the confiscation of their property, Including the "Palace of Labor," where now are housed various communist unions, working under orders from above. It would seem that the delegates of free trade-unions should have interested themselves in this aspect of the Georgian trade-union movement; but. alas! preoccupied with praising the wonders of the soviet system, the delegates did not dare to investigate what labor organization means in Soviet Georgia. The delegation dares not admit
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OP GEORGIA that there are no free, independent unions, but only labor organizations eomtrolleil by the government. Even the recent ev nts which excited the whole European proletariat-the mass shootings by th, Bolsheviks of political hostages and of political prisoiers (an act worthy of General Galiffet, who shot en masse the arrested communards In laris In 1871)--even these events have been grossly perverted by the delegation. The latter write unhesitatingly:"The shooting by the Melisheviks of 18 hostages exasperated the Bolshe. viks. The worst stories refer to those days of guerilla In remote villages, which was ruthless, as It Always is In these regions. It Is impossible to get reliable information as to the number of lives lost, but 3,000 is probably a fair guess" (p. 211). Thik seems to mean that hostages had been shot not by the Bolsheviks but by rtle Mensheviks; that thousands of Innocent had been killed not by the terrorist methods of the soviets but in the fighting between the parties. But this Is sheer invention from beginning to end. The authors of the report have simply made it their aim to remove, at whatever cost, the responsibility from the guilty and throw It on the guiltless. To say that in this respect, too, the delegation have been duped by the Bolsheviks is no justiflcation. Why, the Bolsheviks themselves published the lists of the hostages shot by them. And, moreover, In none of the officials reports, or In the publications of the Teheka, which gave reasons for the shooting of the hostages, has there even once a hint been given of any Bolshevist hostages having been shot by the people in revolt. The fatuous report of Kakhlani and the series of articles contributed to the press by the Bolsheviks who had been taken prisoners by tie Rtevolu. tionaries Invariably testify that their lives had never, even for a moment, been threatened. On the contrary, they are abusive and sarcastic about this, taunting the Revolutionaries of having shown little courage, because they made no attempt to shoot the Bolshevist prisoners, even when the revolt reached Its height; and this at the time when the Bolsheviks were .hooting en masse the, rebels. Adler comments as follows upon this passage of the report: "Murder .of hostages by the Bolsheviks took place, and it was officially reported for the purposes of terror, but the 'IImpartiality' of the English expert demands that his I results' should not contain a single word about the murder of hostages by the Bolsheviks, and that what the Bolsheviks actually did should be imputed to the Mensheviks. With this falsification this shameful document achieves Its acme" (p. 28, the Anglo-Russian report). This unexampled cruelty and persecution against the Socialists Is not a casual event that took place only recently. It is the Bolshevist system of governing a country, long since elaborated and adopted by Moscow. The following is the substance of what Bolsheviks write In their official party organs: "Comrade Trotsky, who was recently in Tifils, characterized the situation In Georgia, as follows: ' Stalin told me in 1922 that it was necessary to plough up the whole of Georgia if the influence and power of Menshevism were to be destroyed there.' Now this task may be considered as accomplished-Georgia Is sufficiently ploughed up to prevent Menshevism from holding Its own." (Materials for the political report of the central committee of the Communist Party of Georgia, Tiflis, May, 1924.) As we have seen, the order to "plough up" (I. e., to terrorize) Georgia was given from Moscow as early as 1922. And the order was executed to the letter. To quote again the same document: "The application of the measures for the extraordinary repression Is ta!d! place during the first half-year of 1923. * * * The central committee sanctioned at the beginning of 1923 the application of the highest punement to some scores of Mensheviks. * * * Our terrorist methods against the Menshevik Party have been crowned with success." (Ibid.) It Is abundantly evident that the terror was decided upon long ago as the chief means for fighting the Geo'glan Social-Democracy and has been strictly applied since 1922. The shooting of the socialists began in 1923; the mass murder of our comrades kept In prisons took place recently, at the beginning of September, 1924; the extermination en masse of peaceful inhabitants, without distinction of sex and age and not guilty of any participation in the rising, are well-known facts (for details see the pamphlet on "Terror in Russia and Georgia," published by the International); the Bolsheviks them-selves do not deny all this, but the British delegates do 11s sont plus royalistes que le Roi
NATIONAL'REPUBUo OF GORGA
THE SHOOTING OF THE 26 BAKU COMMUNISTS
349
The above shows that the condition in Georgia, unde- the occupation rdgime, is represented by the delegation in an absolutely false lighL But this was not enough. The delegation have found it necessary to reproduce. In their report a number of falsehoods spread by the Bolsheviks for their own purpose to lower the prestige of our party, both among the Georgian masses and abroad, such as, for instance, the break-up of the Menshevist Party, the revolts supposed to have taken place under the Menshevist Government, etc. We do not think It necessary now to refute these customary Bolshevist insinuations,' but it is Impossible to pass over In silence one of the accusations against our Inventions.' Without party and excelling in its hideousness even the Bolshevistfollowing: even attempting to give proofs, the delegation state the "The 26 Baku commissars who were nmrdered by the Mensheviks at KIAll Avat In Transeaspla" (p. 220). Who are weant by those Mensheviks? Russians? Evidently not, as It Is known that when those commissars were executed the Russian Mensheviks were not in power anywhere in Russia, and therefore could not have had the means to have the execution carried out. Besides, In that part the report deals not with Russian but with Georgian Mensheviks, who then formed the Government In Georgia. We must therefore conclude that the authors of the report accuse the Georgian Mensheviks orbeing responsible for those executions. The impossibility of that fact Is evident, however, if we remember Georgia and Transcaspla were separated by the whole of AzerbeiJan and the Caspian Sea, and besides by the Turkish, Bolshevist, and British troops which at that period were In that region. The authority of the Menshevist Government stopped at the frontier of Georgia. Even the Bolsheviks who are always inclined to spread calumnies have never made such an accusation as contained In the report. The Bolsheviks accused the British authorities in Transcaspla of those executions. Trotsky says so clearly In his book, "Between Red and White," which is chiefly directed against the Mensheviks: "To the memory of Stephen Shoumilan, Alexel Djaparldze, and 31 other Bake Communists, who were shot without investigation or trial, on a lonely spot between the stations Pereval and Akhtcha in Transcaucasid, on September 20, 1918, by Teague-Jones, the chief of the British Military Mission at Askhabad, with the knowledge and approbation of the other British authorities In Transcaucasia, notably the commander of the British forces in Transcaucasia, Major General Thompson" (Dedication). "The manuscript of this book had been completed when I received a new book by Vadim Chaikin, Socialist-Revolntlonary and member of the ConstituentAssembly, entitled, 'A Contribution to the History of the Russian Revolution: The Execation of 26 Baku Commissars,' and published by Grzebin, Moscow. This book, consisting mostly of documents of which the more Important ones are In facsimile, narrates the story of the murder of 26 Baku commissars by order of the British military authorities, without the least pretense of a public trial. The direct practical organizer of the massacre was the Chief of the British Military Mission at Askhabad, Reginald Teague-.Jones. General Thompson was cognizant of the whole case, and Teague-Jones, as the evidence shows, acted with the consent of the gallant general" (p. 37). The Bolsheviks' accusation against the British authorities Is precise and categorical. The trade-union delegation should know of It, as Trotsky's book appeared in English some time ago; and the documents concerning the affair have been, as Trotsky indicates, published in Russia. But there are other documents which clearly prove that the Georgian Men. sheviks, far from making matters worse for the Bolsheviks at Baku, did their utmost to prevent bloodshed. The facts are as follows: When the United Trans-Caucaslan Republic was dissolved and the national Republics created, the Baku Bolsheviks refused to recognize the Azerbeijan Republic, and declared Baku and surroundings a Soviet Republic. The Azerbeljan Government, which was at Gandia, obtained the help of the Turks, and Baku was surrounded on the land side by the AzerbeijanI For details, see: N. Jordanls, "Imperialism under the Mask of Soelallsm."-A reply to Trotsky.
NATIONAL REPUBLTO OF GKORGIA Turkish troops. Foreseeing a tragedy for Baku, the Georgian Menshevlka sent the following radio on August 22 to the executive committee of Baku: "To prevent bloodshed, do you consent to submit the Baku question to media'ton by German mission at Tlfli for a peaceful solution without bloodshed? In ,case of consent, please formulate your conditions. RAMISMYUA." "81n0 (The signatory, an old militant of 70 years, Is at present deported and .mprisned In Russia for having protested against the occupation of Georgia.) The answer from Baku was: "your proposal In serious. The question of mediation Is submitted to the military dictatorship of the Caspiln center and of the presidium of the executive committee. I must add that by military technical agreement the military operations are carried out together with the British. "ME VES OF PRESIDIU! UMENSKY." The answer from the. Georgian Mensheviks was: "Consider the question from all sides. If circumstances are such that our mediation appears necessary, we shall be happy to help you.
"ISWORE RASIISIVIL."
Thereupon, the Baku Soviet answered that they consented to mediation. But the mediation of the Georgian Mensheviks was not successful, and Baku was taken by storm. These documents are In the collection of documents published (in Russiait language) by the Georgian Government In 1919 at Tiflis under the title, "Documents and Data on the Foreign Policy of Trans-Caucasla and Georgia." These telegrams sufficiently show the attitude of the Georgian Menslieviks at that tragic moment. During the exchange of those messages it became known at Tiflis that 26 commissars, Shaumian and DJaparldze at their head, had left Baku before the battle against the Azerbeijan.Turkish troops, declaring that they would not "fight the Turks with the British Imperialists together." They left on a steamer for Transcaspla to go froim there to Itu."iia. The British troops had arrived at Baku from Persia lit order to bar the progress of the German-Turkish forces toward Persia and further. The British were also In Transcaspla, where they supported the white Russian forces in the civil war which reigned there as elsewhere. The Georgians had not yet any relations with the British, from whom they were separated by the German troops which then occupied Trans-Caucasia. After the fall of Baku the British forces retired from there into Persia. It is clear that the Georgian Mensheviks had nothing to do. and could not have anything to do, with the execution of those 20 commissars. Neither can we say anything about te Bolshevist accusation that the British authorities were responsible for the executions. It Is possible that the Bolshevist commissars were executed by the whites In Transcaspla. Anyhow, they were In the power of the authorities of that locality. If the trade-unioil delegation now tries to lay upon the Georgians the responsibility for those executions It is done to clear the real authors of that act by accusing those who had nothing to do with it. Such an action seems all the more stramge, especially as this section of the report, as stated by the delegation themselves, is drawn up by the very person ;aInst whom the above-mentioned accusation is directed. This person, Mr. MeDonell, who was British vice consul at Baku before the revolution and later, during the conflicts between the British and the Bolsheviks, an officer of the British Army, was marked down by the Bolsheviks in their lists as one of their most active opponents. He was, indeed, one of the intimate collaborators of Reginald Teague-Jones, the chief of the British mission at Askhabad (Transcaspla), with whom he was at Baku at the beginning of 1918 (a month before the shooting of the 20 Bolshevist commissars), and the Bolshevista considered him as one of the direct instigators of the shooting of their 26 comrades. It is. evidently for the pu pose of clearing the reputation of Mr. McDonell that"Since returning to England the delegation has made careful inquiry Into this Incident (. t, the accusation of the British having instigated the shooting), and finds that the evidence entirely exonerates the British forces and their officers" (p. 220).
351
.As the delegation undertook to find the real culprits, and as, on the other hand, the author of the report is such a person as Mr. MeDonell, it would seem most appropriate that, instead of accusing absolutely innocent persons, he should have proved first his own innocence.
CONCLUSION
The example of Georgia enables one to form a clear idea of the methods and results of Bolshevist government in contrast to those of the Menshevist government of independent Georgia. The latter, having been freely elected by chaos created the people, showed itself capable to lift the country out of tile by the war and to carry it through the revolution without civil war and terror. This National Government led the IK.ople into the road of economic and political regeneration simply by relying on the principles of freedom and democracy. And if there are still some who attribute the Russian ruin and downfall exclusively to the civil war. intervention, and blockade, then the example of Georgia, which had none of these disturbing cau-es, affords an excellent opportunity of perceiving the destructive and ruinous nature of the Bol.shevist system. Georgia, under the Bolshevist regime. knew neither Intervention, 'iockade, nor civil war: ot..idh s. havlngm occupied the country suddenly, the soviets found there normal conditions of development and took over an organized and functioning administration. Uindei the circumstances, the "creativeness" of the soviet r~glme ought to have manifested Itself there. But what do we see? Moscow, with it,. systunm of government. has, in a short tint, literally plundered the country. e:.used it to fall into decay. ruined the people economically, and enslaved them p(ol.tically. The paralysis of the productive forces under the soviet rCgime has its source in the very nature of the rfgtme Itself. in its social and political principles, and therefore the end of the regime is preordained. The British delegates have tlhosen to defend this dying reglme and are evidently endeavoring to bind up with it the fate of British trade-uniot.z. The entire Socialist and Labor International has long since valued the .oviets; at their true merit and has turned away from them. But the British trade-union delegates now declare sovietism a new social gospel, at leas-t for Rusia. In the ranks of the labor movement of (rat Brita'n struggle present, after a delay of several years. develophng flit very .- there Is atwhich on ame the Continent brought about the erl-A,4 the labor inov~em'nt in the years of immediately following the war. Attenipt are being made to introduce Into the Britl.h labor movement Boishe-vist lvthodal]nti to idealize the Bolshevist regime. On the Continent this struggle cnd'Ad w'th the triumph of the European democratic methods and with the Isoltitii ,f the tIniniunlst groups, which, however. continue to exist, though only sin% t the supflort they get from Msiscowv. We are d.t, convinced ihat the gc-vi4*t li(,opaganda. of whieh the report in ly uiuetion Is all Insidious example. will N. intt toy the workers w'th the rejection itde cs, and that British labor. opposed to oppression and exploitation, will resolutely repudiate any form of sslidarty with the oiressors and exploiters in llusAsa and Georgia. Tinl, lires'd'um of the foreign isurt-afo 4,f the Social-Pf-mneratle Labor Party of Georgla.
N. JORDANJA,
l)6 ! 53-26--23
N. CHKEIDZE, N. RAMXSHVILI.
APPENDIX No. 22
CERTIFICATION OF DOCUMENTS
I hereby confirm that the wording of inclosed exhibits, the same Lelng letters, documents, etc., are a true and precise copy or translation of the originals. YVONNE W. GERARD, Secretary of the Georgia* Diplomatio and Economio Representation in the United States. The originals of all documents, all books mentioned in my brief from which I have quoted, are available at any time, the same being on file at 211 West Seventy-ninth Street, New York City. VASILI D. DUMLEADGE, General Diptomat o and Eoonomlo Representative of the Repubtlo of Georgia. 352
R1I
'i
;
I, L
9.
r *
IKON
OF TlE
ARCHANGEL
GABRIEL
An eximole of ancient Georgian Byzant;ne enameling of the eleventh Century, once reDosing in the Monastery of Ojumats in Georgia, nje med31lions of which are now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art New York Cty '-521
BEST AVAILABLE COPY
HOLY GOSPELS ENCASED IN COVERS OF GOLD. RICHLY ENAMELED AND ORNAMENTED WITH PRECIOUS STONES. AND SHOWING THEREON THE GEORGIAN ALPHABET IN USE IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY This is a product of Georia's conversion to Clristianity in the fourth century. Stocn by Ru!sirI Government' i its Preent whereabouts uniknowr
TAMARA (THAMAR). 352-3
QUEEN OF GEORGIA A. 0. 1184-1212. "The AGE" OF GEORGIA
GOLDEN
SHOT'HA
RUST'HAVELI. TWELFTH
CENTURY
GEORGIAN
POET
Author of the romantic Gecri'an eoi:. ,3t- -4
-The Ma" in tne Parther's Skin"
IRAKLY II (ERECLE1. KING OF GEORGIA A. D. 1762-1798. WHO CONCLUDED THE FIRST TREATY BETWEEN GEORGIA AND RU3SIA. IN 1783 ,Z-5 .
ere
KETEVAN, QUEEN
OF GEORGIA
IN 1624 elrs f'tr rr uft.l
First blinded and hter brutally <,;ledtj the Mn,, Pefe'ne of C'r'-t 'inty
1t
NINO. THE PATRON SAINT OF GEORGIA, A SLAVE GIRL WHO BROUGHT CHRISTIANITY TO THE KINGDOM OF GEORGIA IN THE FOURTH CENTURY. A. D. 125 In the backgroJ',d is t',e C tn ,Jril :152-7 rAzk re te o, tcet ' 't,
Ce
,tirt
CITY OF TIFLIS, CAPITAL OF GEORGIA, FOUNDED
IN THE
FIFTH CENTURY
.w.
FIRST UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA FOUNDED BY THE NEW INDEPENDENT GEORGIAN REPUBLIC. A THEATER. STREET, AND CITY HALL OF TIFLIS. AND THE PEOPLE'S HOUSE. OTHERWISE N-oE PUBLIC CLUBHOUSE FOR ARTISANS AND THEIR FAMILIES. CONTAINING A THEATER. LECTURE HALL, GYMNASIUM. RESTAURANT. ETC.
S VA NETIA One of the Provinces of Georgia still unconquered by the Bolsheviks
MZKHET Puror ia of the city ajri of the cathedral. which dates from the fourth century
THE DARIEL
PASS
The fortress dates from the reign of Queen Tamara
'A
~*f .~1
~'
R-
WW
CATHEDRAL 3.52--3
AT ANANUR, FORTRESS OF GEORGIA'S CHRISTIAN DATING FROM THE SIXTH CENTURY
FAITH.
BORJOM, THE
SP.RINGSOF GEORGIA IN THE 'CAUCASUS. WHERE THEJBOLSHEVIKS HAVE OVERRUN THE REPUBLICIOF GEORGIA At about the same latitude as that of Ronme. 2,600 feet above the sea, coninecte-d with the Transcaucasian Railway by line running through the picturesaque Kura Valley, is the (once famous res-ort frequented by tl'e Imperial ruler,, a branch of Russia.
"HOT
It is the property of the Republic of Georgia Borjoin is famous throughout Europe and other countries as a rival of Vichy. In fa,-t. Europe and the United States over 9,000.000 bottles of tis' famous mninoral water. iniA pre-war day% Boirn shipped to rormrarkable feature of the water of Borinnm ks its rni'vitv. Etor-m wi'prq lir. fioioi. r E. i;w -- ,- re ---x !-~.t.
T.- 1 5 0i %iuii.Ilc aii :nin-r~ii %nri n4, of Geili;.i. witi itAti--.
~is--k-r,
I'
ri--t.
i*ijuti
Ia i-nr ii ij 6uri un iiially. rict., iiiy ji'uiid (mid -'iisept
Tie-tm,t faiii,is of thin- fi litmdrod for tie vcc aional visit from a Bolshevik
A TEA PLANTATION
IN
GEORGIA
352--15
KUTAIS.
GENERAL
VIEW
OF THE CITY AND OF THE
RIVER
RION
-.
TmE RIVER RION IN GEO
,'GA IS A SECOND RHINE. ITS BANKS ARE LINED WITH THE RUINS OF ANCIENT CASTL.7S
APPENDIX NO. 40
CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION OF THIE CAUCASIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA (INC.)
Received for record February 26, A. D. 1925. EDGAR H. ATxINsoN,
Recorder.
STATE OF DELAWARE, Kent County, U: Received in the office for the recording of deeds, &c., at Daver, in and for the said county of Kent, in corporation record F, volume 7, page -, &c.,. the 26th day of February, A. D. 1025. Witne-qq my hnnd and scal of said office. EDGAR 11. ATKINSON, Recorder. Certified a true and correct copy as initialed. [SEALJ THOMAS J.BELL, Notary Public.
CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION OF THE CAU'CASIAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA (INC.)
First. The name of the corporation is "The Caucas!an Society of America (Inc.)." Second. The location of its principal office In the State of Delaware is In the city of Dover, county of Kent. The name of its resident agent Is United States Corporation Co., whose address Is No. 19-21 Dover Green, in that city. Third. The nature of the business of the corporation and the objects and purposes proposed to be transacted, promoted, or carried oni by it, are as follows: (1) To afford opportunities for social Intercourse and strengthen the bonds of brotherhood amongst the Caucasians and Caucasian speaking Ieoples in the United States of America and elsewhere. (2) To promote and extend relations with Cauc:isian organizations of like purpose In this and other lands, and generally in all lawful nnd proper ways to promote a wider knowledge of and disseminate Information In regard to the social and economic conditions of the peoples in the Rtepublics of the Caucasus. (3) To advocate and support the principles of Americanism and through these principles to advance the cause and conditions of Justice and the building of sound and enduring Institutions for the peoples of that section of the world. (4) To disseminate Information among the peoples of Caucasla now resident in the United States of America relating to the laws and institutions of the country of their adoption, to the end that they may become good citizens of this great Republic. (5) To foster shrines and landmarks of American and Caucasian patriotic and historical interest In the United States and elsewhere. (0) To do all and everything necessary, suitable, and proper for the accomplishment of any of the purposes or the attainment of any of the objects or the furtherance of any of the powers hereinbefore set forth, either aone or Ifn association with other corporations, firms, or individuals, and to do cery other act or acts, thing or things incidental or appurtenant to or growing cut of or connected with the aforesaid objects or purposes or any part or parts thereof, provided the same be not inconsistent with the laws under which this corporation is organized. (7) The objects or purposes of the corporation are from time t0 time to do any one or more of the acts and things hereinabove set forth, and Ic shall have power to conduct and carry on its operations, or any part thereof, and to have one or more offices, and to exercise all or any of Its corporate powers and rights in the State of Delaware and in the various other States, Territories, colonies, and dependencies of the United States, In the District of Columbia, and In all or any foreign countries. 353
354
Fourth. The corporation shall have no capital stock, and shall not engage in any of its objects or purposes for profit. The members of the corporation shall consist of such persons interested in the objects and purposes of the cor. portion as shall be elected thereto by the board of directors upon such terms and conditions as the board of directors may from time to time determine. Fifth. The names and places of residence of each of the original corporators are as follows: Arthur W. Britton, 150 Broadway, New York City. Samuel B. Howard, 150 Broadway, New York City. George V. Reilly, 150 Broadway, New York City. Sixth. The corporation is to have perpetual existence. Seventh. The private property of the members shall not be subject to the payment of corporate debts to any extent whatever. Eighth. The following provisions are inserted for the regulation and conduct of the affairs of the corporation, and It is expressly provided that they are intended to be in furtherance and not In limitation or exclusion of the powers conferred by the statutes of the State of Delaware: "(1) The number of the directors of the corporation shall be fixed and may be altered from time to time as may be provided in the by-lays. In case of any Increase in the number of directors, the additional directors may be elected by the directors or by the members at any annual or special meeting as shall be provided in the by-lws. "(2) The directors shall have power, without the assent or vote of the members, to make and alter the by-laws of the corporation. "(3) The board of directors may appoint from time to time such committee or committees as. in their discretion, shall be desirable for the furtherance of the objects and purposes of the corporation, ard may delegate to such committee or committees such powers as, in the discretion of the board of directors, are necessary and desirable. "(4) In addition to the powers and authorities hereinbefore or by statute expressly conferred upon them, the directors are hereby empowered to exerelse all such pow -,s and do all such acts and things as may he exercised or done by the corporation ; subject, nevertheless, to the provisions of the statutes of Delaware, of this certificate, and to any by-law from time to time made by the members: Provided, however, That uo by-law so made shall invalidate any prior act of the directors which would have been valid had such by-law not have been made." We, the undersigned, being the original corporators of the corporation herein named in order to form a corporation for the purposes above stated under and pursuant to the provisions of the general corporation law of the State of Delaware, being chapter 65 of the ItevIled Code of 1915. and the acts amendatory thereof arid supplementary thereto, do make null file this certificate, hereby declaring and certifying that the facts herein stated are true, and have hereunto set our hands and seals this 25th day of February, 1925. ARTHUR W. BairoN [L. 8.] SAMUEL B. IIOWARD [L. 8.1
GEORGE V. REILLY [L. 8.]
In the presence ofJULTA R. NEvIN.

STATE OF NEW YORK,
County of Netv York, 8s: Be it remembered, that on the 25th day of February, 1925. personally came before me, Julia R. Nevin, a notary public in and for the State and county aforesaid, Arthur W. Britton, Samuel B. Howard, and George V. Reilly, being all of the parties to the foregoing certificate of incorporation known to me personally to be such, and severally acknowledged the (ertifleate of incorporation to be the act and deed of the signers, respectively, and that the facts therein stated are truly set forth. Given under my hand and seal of office the day and year aforesaid. [SEAL.] JULIA R. NF.vIN, Notary Public, Bronx ('ounty, No. 5. Certificate filed in New York County No. 53. Term expire, March 30. 1925
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA STATZ OF DKLAWARE
355
Office of Secretary of State.
I, Win. G. Taylor, secretary of state of the State of Delaware, do hereby certify that the above and foregoing is a true and correct copy of certificate of incorporation of "The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.)," as received and filed in this office the 26th day of February, A. D. 1925, at 9 o'clock a. m. In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my hand and official seal at Dover this 26th day of February, in the year of our Lord 1925. (s L.) Wm. 0. TAYLOR, Secretary of State.
-1
APPENDIX NO. 41
MEMBF.RSIIIP LIST, CAUCASIAN SOCIErY or AMERICA (INC.), AND SUPPLEMENTAL
STATEMENTS OF INDORSEMENT MILITARY ORDER OF THE WOPRLD WAR, New York, March 30, 1926.
Mr. JOHN A. SlzWAR',
Chairman Organization Committee, The CaucasianSociety of America, New York, N. Y. My DER MR. STEWART: I have your favor of March 19 and referred same to MaJ. Gen. James G. Harbord, who is chief of staff of this organization as you will see by our letterhead. lie was sent by our Ocvernment to Georgia and Armenia shortly after the World War and wrote most convincingly and sympathetically of matters of International interest in that part of the world. I received a reply yesterday from his secretary to the effect that he is abroad and will not return until the end of April. I will be glad to refer the natter to our general staff for discussion at its next meeting. This will not be until after your hearing before Congress on March 31. I expect to be in Washington on that date and will give myself the honor, if practical, of being at the committee meeting at that time and hope to meet you in person. Faithfully yours, MARK L. HEeSY7, Command r in (hief, MIlitary Order of the World War.
MILITARY ORDER OF TH1E LOYAL LEGION OF TH1E UNITED STATES,
Yonkers, N. Y., March 26, 1926. Chairman Organiza lion Committee. The Caucasian Society of Anerica. DEAR SIR: Replying to your letter of the 19th instant, I approve and commend the resolution which your society will ask Congress to adopt In recognition of the national Republic of Georgia. I can not call at this time a meeting of the commandery In chief of the Loyal Legion, but I am sure that the companions of the order would endorse your proposed action. Yours truly, P. F. HARBINOTON, Commander t Chief, Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United Stales.
(IGRAcE CHURCH IIECTORY,
Ar. JOHN A. STEWART,
Nei
York, March 29, 1926.
Mr. JonN A. STEWART, The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York, N. 1'. MY DrAR MIR. STEWART: In reMSponse to your letter of March 23 and the Pamphlet inclosed. I shall be very glad Ide|ii to w- eitiled ninoitr those appealIng to the United States Government for the recognition of the idlcpendence of the National Repubile of Georgia. I am tie more glad to join In this appeal because I see that the congressional rcsolutionl Is spoizored by Mr. It. Walton
Moore.
Yours faithfully,
V. it'sstrr, I1,owIE.
356
NR
.IN N
VU _
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GORGIA
357
NORTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY CO., New York, Mtarch 29, 1926. Hon. IENRY LANE WILSON, President the Caucasian Society of America (Ine.), New York, N. Y. My DEAR MR. WILSON: Your letter of March 20 was duly received. There Is not very much that I can do to help in this matter, but I did take occasion on Friday last to talk it over quite fully with a friend of mine who looks after some of our affairs in Washington. and be may incidentally at some time be in a position to say a good word. HOWARD ELLIOTT. Yours very truly, BOWDOIN COLLEGE, Brunswick, ito., March 26, 1926. Mr. JOHN A. STEWART, The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York. My DEAR MR. STEWART: I am very glad to give my approval to the Joint resolution now before Congress providing for the appointment of a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia. I am sorry that I can not personally be present at the public hearing to be held in Washington on March 31, but it ;eems to me in every way consistent with American principles that we should express our sympathy to the sister republic now in such great distress. Yours very truly, KENNETI C. 'MCSILLS, NEw YORK, March 30, 1926 The CaucasianSoclthi of America (Inc.), New Fork City. DEAR MR. WILSoN: I have received and read with interest your letter of March 19. a letter front Mr. Vaslit D. Dumbndze, the diplomatic and economic representative of the Caucasian Reptbiles. I have also read the joint reso lution introduced on March 10 by Senator Copeland and in the iouse of Rep resentatives by Congressman Moore. of Virginia. I sincerely hope that the resolution will pass, as the cause of the Caucasian Republics has my most sincere sympathy. With every good wish,
Faithfully yours,
GIEORGE GORDON BATTLE.
HENRY LANE WILSON, Esq..
BUFFALO, N. Y., March 30, 1926. Mr. JOHN A. STEWART, The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York, N. 1". 31Y DEAR 3nR. STEWART: Your recent letter retained unanswered, because I was hoping I would have a chance to make some inquiries about the question, namely, "the rights of the Georgian people," but the pressure of matters have made it Impossible for me to give it attention. However, in any event anything that you endorse I can readily back. I should therefore be pleased if you or other members of your society would present my sincere hope that the resilltion shall have favorable action. Yours very truly. FENTON 31. PARKs.
GENERAL SOCIETY OF MlAYki.OWER DEScENDANTS.
I'rot'idene, R. I., March 22. 1976.

Mr. JtiN A. STEWART,
Chairman Organization Committee, The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), Ncu'- York. N. Y. DEAR STEWARr: I ant very glad to express my personal approval of the W. joint resolution now before Congress for the auuoltintneit of a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia. provided that said Itepublic of Georgia be not a component part of the Suviet Union. Very truly yours.
..
'lplsON
I. Mut.',
Gorcrnor (enral.
358

HAMILTON COLLEGE,
Clinton, N. Y., March 25, 1986. Hon. JOHN A. STEWART, LL. D., New York, N. Y. MY DEAR Docroa STEWART: I find myself wholly in sympathy with the at tempt which is being made to secure to the little Republic of Georgia some of those privileges which attach to independent and well-developed nations. I sincerely hope that your efforts may be availing and that the joint resolution now before the Senate and the House of Representatives may be approved by those bodies. With personal regards to you, I am, Yours very sincerely, FREDERICK C. FERRY.
DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION,
Arlington, N. J., March 24, 1926. MY DER Ms. STEWART: I regret that It will be impossible for me to attend the hearing in Washington, before congressional committee, on the question of recognition of the Independence of Georgia. Certainly the Joint resolution now before Congress has my own most enthusiastic approval and I know that the society, which I have the honor to represent, would heartily irdorse it also, if opportunity were given. MINNIE STRONG LATHAM. Yours very truly,
STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
Hoboken, N. J., March 2|, 1926. Hon. HENRY LANE WILSON, President the Caucasian Socqfety of America, (Inc.) New York City. DEAn MR. WILSON: I am in receipt of your letter of March 20 in regard to the sad situation of the Caucasian Republic of Georgia and Azerbaidjen, accompanied by the letter from Mr. Vasill D. Dumbadze, the diplomatic and economic representative of the Republic named. I agree with you that we should express our sympathy with these people and particularly in the direction of protection from the cruel and irresponsible Bolshevik Government. Let us of the United States cease to boast of ourselves as a liberty-loving people if we do not at least express our abhorrence of the oppiessors in this case so plainly stated. The least we can do is to support the Joint resolution providing for the appointment of a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia. ALEX C. HUMPHREYS, President. Yours sincerely,
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY,
Princeton, N. J., March 26, 1926.

Mr. JOHN A. STEWAR'r,
Chairman the Cauca8lan. Sooicly of America, New York. My DEAR Ms. STEWART: I have Just received your letter and the enclosed pamphlet concerning the National Republic of Georgia. I should be very glad to have you use my name in endorsing the joint resolution now before Congress which officially tenders to the Georgian people sympathy of our country and provision for appointment of a suitable diplomatic representative. Faithfully yours, JOHN GiuER IrnoiN.
NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE SONS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION,
Rochester, N. Y., March 2e, 192$. JouN A. STEWART, Esq., Chairman Organizalion Committee, Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York, N. Y. My DEAR Mn. STFWART: May I ask that you present to the respective committees of Congress at the public hearing held in Washington on WednesdAay, March 31, my strong approbation of the joint resolution now before Congress providing for the appointment of a diplomatic representative to the National Republic of Georgia.
359
Every nation having for its object the principles which these liberty-loving people have advocated should be encouraged, end our own Government should be represented at the seat of government of the Republic of Georgia. We should not hold aloof from these people who have had many serious struggles and well-nigh political extinction, and I am sure that favorable action by the Congress will meet with the approval of the great mass of the American people. I regret that my engagements will prevent my attendance at the hearing to be held on March 81. Very cordially yours, HAvr F. RUMtIOTON. Preatdent General.
DIocEsE OF HAnRISBURO,
No. 821 Front Street, North, March 24, 1926. JoHN A. STEWART, Esq., Chairman Organization Committee Caucasian Society, New York. My DEAR Mn. STEWART: In answer to your request I am pleased to reply that I approve the resolution for recognition of the Republic of Georgia, and sincerely hope it will pass. Yours very sincerely, JAMES II. DARLINOTON. Back Bay, Boston, March 26, 1923. JOHtN A. STEWART, Esq., New York City. My DEAR MR. STEWART: Thank you for your note just received. I wish I could be present at the hearing before Congress, but Holy Week is almost here antI I am absolutely bound by duties here in Boston. It will not be possible for me to do very much In the field you indicate; but I should be delighted to have my name at the service of your committee, if it means the possibility of a blow at Bolshevism. or a bit of good work for the recognition of the independence of that splendid Georgian people. When you are ready to do something here In Boston, pray let me know and I will be glad to cooperate with you. Please print my name in full, as it appears on this sheet, and believe me, with cordial regards, W. 11. VAN ALLEN. Yours always sincerely, BROADWAY TEMPLE, NOW C11I SEA METHODIST EPIoPA. CHURCH, Nea' York, March 31, 1926. Mr. JOHN A. STEWART, The Caucasian Society of America (Inc.), New York City. Also, I am convinced that the cause of the National Republic of Georgia is a good one and I most heartily coinnwnd the effort to have the Urited States recognize their independence. I will be glad to send letters to any specific persons that you may direct and I will be most glad to have you use my name In any way that will aid In securing the end sought. With every good wish, I am, CumPSTIAN F. REsr3NIM. Yours faithfully,
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABO3, RECTORY OF THE ADVENT,
DEAR MR. STEWART: Of course, I gladly respond to any request from you.
Wa.Rhington, D. C., Makch 31, 1926. Mr. Jon,* A. STE.WART, Chairman Organization Commitc. The Caucasian Society of America, (hn.), New York City. DEAR MR. STE:wART: We are in sympathy with the efforts being put forth by those who represent the Republle of Georgia to secure from the other nations throughout the world recognition of the republic's Independence. I regard it as inadvisable to appear personally before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, in behalf of the resolution to which you refer In your letter of 'March 19. when the committee shall take this re.zolutlon under consideration. Wi1.1,Am GRE;N, Very truly yours, I'Prsidvit -list'rqaf ica 'Vdrationof Labor.
360
NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA MmewnaiP LIST CAUCASIAN Socirry ou AMrmoA
Chaplain and Mrs. William A. Alken, Madison Barracks, N. Y. Bartlett Arkell, New York City. Andrew 0. Banecker, Brooklyn, N. Y. Robert Appleton, New York City. John G. Boles, Bridgeport, Conn. John McE. Bowman, New York City. Helen Varick Boswell, New York City. Mrs. Mary S. Broad, Durhanmville, N. Y. Harry L. Brown, Lakeland, Fla. George Gordon Battle, New York City. Mrs. Lena Brown, Granville, N. Y. Colonel and Mrs. Charles S. Bryan, Neiv York. Mr. and Mrs. Mille Bunnell, Dulutb, Minn. Miron Bunnell, Duluth, Minn. Dr. Harvey J. Burkhart, Rochester, N. Y. B1arron G. Collier, New York. Jerome Chase, Care of Chase & Newman, Buffalo, N. Y. W. Stanley Child, Oneida. N. Y. Robert Fulton Cutting, New York. Right Rev. James If. Darlington, Iarrisburg, Pa. Rev. and Mrs. Thomas A. Fenton, Syracuse, N. Y. Mrs. Royal S. Copcand, New York. Mr. and Mrs. Hugh Findlay, Cambridge, Mase. Hugh J. Fleming, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. J. B. Handley-Greaves, Great Kills, Staten Island, N. Y. Henry I. Hawkins, Ifamiiten, N. Y. Mrs. James Creelman, New York. Thomas Hastings, New York. Mr. and Mrs. Wilbur M. Ienderson, Morrisville, N. Y. John Edmord Hewitt. New York. Maj. Gen. C. R. Edwards. William Iolbert, Morrisville Station, N. Y. Miss Carrie Ilolt, Morrlsville, N. Y. Dr. Alexander C. Hlumphreys, Hoboken, N. J. (president Stevens Institute of Techowit-y). John Ha."-Hammond, Washington, D. C. Mr. and 5-rs. Johnson, Morrisville, N. Y. Charles W. Larmon, Salem. N. Y. Mrs. Darwin E. Leland, Hamliton, N. Y. Everett Leland, Hamilton, N. Y. Isaac Leland, Hamilton, N. Y. James Leland, Hamilton, N. Y. Archibald Hopkins, Washington, D. C. Ilenry T. Lewig, Morrisville, N. Y. Edward Lounsbury, Oneida, N. Y. Dr. lilenry N. .MacCracken, Poughkceepsie, N. Y. (president Vassar College). John A. IHopper, New York. Lawrence MeGuire, New York. Dr. Floyd II. Marvin, Tucson, Ariz. (president University of Arizona). Albert Maydole, Buffalo, N. Y. Perhoy Morse, Niw York. Dr. E. S. Moore, Bay Shore, N. Y. l)r. Sidtiey 'Mezes. New York (president College of the City of New York). Miss Clara J':ttrrson, Brooklyn, N. Y. Miss Hattie latterson, Brooklyn, N. Y. Col. George 4. Prlestley, Pittsburgh, Pa. John A. Stewart, New York. Mr. and Mrs. Frtmk S.'Ray, Canastota, N. Y. Hv. Dr. (C ia-t:an F. Iteilner, New Yor's. Mi's Alice Scnicr, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mrs. John V. Se nior, Brooklyn, N. Y. George I. Siocurn, Elizalbeth, N. J. Mr. and Mrs. Clifford Starke, Rochester, N. Y. MiE's lizabeth Slewart, Mrrlsville, N. Y. Mr. Sidney V. Stewart. Corry, Pa.
361
Rev. Dr. John Timothy Stone. ('hieao. Ill. (Fourth 1'resbylerlan ('huick. Walter R. Stone, Syracuse, N. Y. William R. Wilcox, New York. Mrs. J. T. Sweeney. New York. T. Kennard Thomson, New York. Charles M. Turner. Brooklyn. N. Y. Henry Lane Wilson, New YotA. Mr. and Mrs. Harry C. Turner, Brooklyn, N. Y. Rev. Dr. William Ilarman van Allen, Boston, Mass. Lucius Wilmerding, New York. Mr. and Mrs. D. T. Wadhams, Oswego, N. Y. James Harold Warner, New York. Frank M. Williams. Albany, N. Y. Edwin Wildhnan. New York. Miss Jessle Truby. New York. Mrs. IHelen Davis Young, New York. Mr. Victor Young. New York. IMr. Carolyn A. Dwight, New York. Mrs. Charlotte II. Sturtevant, New York. Mrs. Constance Towne. Stamford. Conn. Miss Madeline Maxwell, New York. Mrs. B. N. Levy, New York. Edwin Thankham. Port Washington. N. Y. Miss Elaa I,. Smith. New York. Miss Margaret Fitzgerald, Riverside, Conn. Miss Jacqueline de Moor. New York. Ml:s Helen W. Peaslee, New York. Miss Esther E. Swentzel, Brooklyn, N. Y. Miss 11l1e Dillinghant, Miliburn, N. J. Miss To-ephine Forsyth. New York. Miss Sara Bair. New York. Mrs. C. T)yas-Standish. New York. Miss Louise Dyas, New York. Mrs. F. P. I'e La Mater. Canton, Ohio. MIss Ethel M. Alexander, New York. Mrs. Franklin J. Miller. Mrs. Idalia Hare, New York. Mrs. Hlenriette G. Briggs, Brooklyn. N. Y. W. E. Cash, Philadelphia. Pa. Justice Joseph D. Senn, Wampsville, N. V. Mrs. E.mma van Horne. New York. Dr. Charles R. Borzilleri, Buffalo. N. Y.

Hearing On Georgia in US House of Representatives, 1926

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hearing On Georgia in US House of Representatives, 1926

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS

APRIL 1 AND 2, 1926

WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT HINTING OFFICE

COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS

THEODORE E. BURTON, Ohio. BENJAMIN 1, FAIIICIIIL.) New York.

TOM CONNALLY, Texts.

CYRENUtS COLE, Iowa.

E)GAR C. ELLIS, 'Mi -ouri.

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

May '21, 1118; azln Whereas the existence of the Il4,iuulic b

ICt'1 g.,iertiliy rtcognlizd by een

Tih:w.president of the lis:t cotlitniiy is MI'. Barron Te

-NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

about a year and a half ao by sador to Mexico at one time.

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC 0'

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

There are 3,000,000 in Georgia.

Mr. STEWART. NO.

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

In March, 1921, 10 months after that. A scrap of parer?

Mr. STEWART. Yes.

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

but if they do they will shoot them.

In answer to that question, regarding that privilege

Mr. CONNALY. When?

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

The concluding paragraph of this report says:

That -was in the capital of Georgia.

Mr. O'CONNE L. As administered by Russia. Mr. Coo~en. Yes.

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEOROUA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

HousE OF REPRESENTATIVES, Coi[,mirRaE oN FoREIoN AFFAIRS,

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA.

Now, let me call particularly your attention to this paragraph:

And the statement of Mr. Collier closes with this paragraph:

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIO OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL MPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

(The resolution and report referred to are as follows:),

WATIO NAL HEPUBLIC OF* GEORGIA

(British Empire). I rise on behalf of tlh British

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

The CHAIMAN. Proceed.

STATEMENT OF HENRY G. OPDYCKE, CIVIL ENGINEER, NEW YORK CITY

a fair degree of accuracy of the facts and with a fair estimation of

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA

NATIONAL REPUBLIC OF GEORGIA