Professional Documents
Culture Documents
USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry Technology Marketing Unit
Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin
Introduction weight of the wood, and sometimes ash may be used as a fer-
tilizer.
This paper explains and describes the concepts of wood en- Economic
ergy on a residential, commercial, and industrial scale in the
United States so that the Forest Service can help meet the de- Low Fuel Cost
mands of communities involved in the forest-products indus-
try. In addition, terminology associated with this field is The principle economic advantage of wood-burning systems is
explained so individuals can develop a basic understanding of that wood fuel is usually less expensive than competing fossil
and familiarity with technical terms common to bioenergy. fuels.
Definitions specific to wood energy are given at the end of this
report. However, the price of wood for use as fuel can be extremely
variable. Sometimes when surplus supplies of wood residues
Advantages of Wood Biomass are available at nearby forest-products manufacturing plants or
municipal solid-waste handling facilities, the cost can be very
Environmental low or even negative. But today, most manufacturing wood-
plant residues are being used internally as fuel or sold exter-
Renewable nally as a higher valued product. Transportation for delivering
from the supply site to the wood combustion or wood-
Wood fuel has several environmental advantages compared processing unit is the primary expense of wood fuel.
with fossil fuels. Wood can be continually replenished, which
leads to a sustainable and dependable supply. However, proper At other times, mostly dependent on location of the wood-
forest management must be practiced to ensure that growing power facility, the cost of wood fuel can be quite high because
conditions are not degraded during biomass production. large volumes are needed to have a dependable and consistent
supply of wood fuel (~1,360 green kg (~1.5 green tons) per
Low Carbon Emission hour per megawatt of power generated for a 27% overall
power plant efficiency). However, wood power plants can find
Wood combustion produces little net (~5%) carbon dioxide and do maintain a fairly low price and consistent fuel supply
(CO2), the major greenhouse gas, because the CO2 generated when adequate quantities are available. Staff foresters allow
during combustion of wood equals CO2 consumed during the plant personnel to focus on plant operation while foresters fo-
lifecycle of the tree. Transporting wood using petroleum gen- cus on wood-fuel procurement.
erates some excess CO2.
Typically, the average cost of fuel wood for small-scale com-
Minimal Metals and Sulfur bustors is similar to the reported prices of pulpwood for a
given location. Pulpwood is one of the lower valued forest
Wood fuel contains minimal heavy metals and extremely low products, ranking between industrial boiler fuel and the lowest
levels of sulfur; therefore, combusting wood fuel will not cre- quality saw logs, pallet logs, and stud wood. According to re-
ate acid rain pollution through sulfur emissions. However, gional data from the first quarter of 2007 (International Wood-
burning wood in the forest does emit significant amounts of fiber Report, May 2007, Vol. 13, No. 5), weighted average
nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas, if either by wildfire or broad- price in dollars per green short ton delivered to mill was $29
cast burning for stand improvement. for softwood and $30 for hardwood for roundwood pulpwood
across all U.S. regions. The Southern Pine pulpwood stump-
Minimal Ash age price average reported across the U.S. South in the 1st
quarter 2007 Timber Mart-South (Vol. 12, No. 1) was $7.89
Particulate emissions from wood are controllable through per green short ton, whereas the southern hardwood pulpwood
standard emission control devices such as bag houses, cyclone stumpage price average was $6.51 per green short ton. These
separators, fly-ash injectors, and electronic precipitators. Bot- numbers are derived from average prices of the previous year
tom ash is minimal. Usually, wood ash is less than 1% of the ($1 for pine and $2 for hardwood). Considering small-scale
Whereas steam generation technology is very dependable and Today, a new generation of low energy, gas-producing gasifi-
proven, its efficiency is limited. Biomass power boilers are ers with better systems for cleaning and control are being de-
typically in the 20 to 50 MW range, compared with coal-fired veloped. Not only are these new gasifiers more reliable for
plants in the 100 to 1500 MW range. The small-capacity conventional applications, such as driving internal combustion
plants tend to be lower in efficiency. Because of economic engines, but they also may find suitability for use with Stirling
trade-offs, efficiency-enhancing equipment cannot pay for it- engines, micro-turbines, and fuel cells.
self in small plants. When wood plants replace coal, they re-
duce sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon In July 2007, the state of Georgia awarded a development
dioxide (CO2) to the air. Wood gasifiers can be more efficient company a construction permit to build a 100-million-gallon-
than direct burning, and usually the gas may require cleaning per-year cellulosic ethanol plant. This is the first plant to use
to remove problem chemical compounds. synthesis gas from wood to produce transportation fuel.
Cogeneration is the simultaneous production of heat and elec- As a Fuel Additive - In some cities and surrounding areas,
tricity, commonly called combined heat and power (CHP), known as non-attainment areas, ethanol may be used as an
from a single fuel. Traditionally, a steam turbine is used to oxygenate in gasoline during summer months. Its use is man-
produce electricity; although a wood gasification/internal dated in some cases, where other agents, mainly methyl terti-
combustion engine combination can also be a cogeneration ary butyl ether (MTBE), are banned. Production of ethanol
unit. Several factors affect the economic feasibility of a CHP from corn in the Midwest has increased dramatically in the
unit, including wood waste disposal problems, high electricity last several years, partially because of the MTBE ban in 21
costs, and year-round steam use. states. Legislation has also been introduced to ban MTBE na-
tionwide, but this is not proposed to take effect until 2012.
Two common mistakes when installing a CHP system are buy- Probably most states would already have banned it by then. As
ing a steam boiler that is designed for less than 100 lb- of January 2007, present total existing biomass ethanol capac-
force/in2 (689 kPa) or over-sizing the system. Buying a steam ity is 5635.6 million gallons per year with total under new
boiler that is designed for less than 100 lb-force/in2 (psig) re- construction or expansion plans increasing to 6.123 billion
sults in a quality of steam that is not adequate for turbine op- gallons per year.
eration. Over-sizing the system results in additional capital
and operating costs, not better quality steam. Methanol
More electricity and heat are generated for a lesser amount of Methanol is another potential liquid fuel that can be manufac-
fuel by a CHP unit than by a separate heat and power (SHP) tured from wood. Methanol is known as wood alcohol, as it
unit. Common challenges for all wood-fired systems are en- was most commonly made from wood during the 1920s.
suring adequate fuel procurement and solving the complex However, methanol was a byproduct of charcoal manufacture
fuel-handling and storage issues. through destructive distillation. When it began to be synthe-
sized from natural gas, methanol from wood could no longer
compete. Today, some methanol is made from wood and coal
Liquefaction through gasification, forming synthesis gas (syngas), and con-
verting syngas to methanol, much in the way natural gas is re-
Ethanol formed to syngas and converted to methanol. However,
making methanol from wood is more complex than making it
As a Motor Fuel - Although different types of liquid fuels, from natural gas.
including gasoline and diesel, could be made from wood,
ethanol is most commonly produced from biomass. Biomass Methanol has a lower energy density than ethanol, and metha-
ethanol is mostly produced through fermentation with poten- nol is a toxic substance. However, methanol can be made from
tial production through gasification. In the United States, wood at higher yields than ethanol. Making methanol from
ethanol is made mostly from corn grain with an annual pro- wood uses all wood components, including lignin and bark;
duction of 4.86 billion gallons in 2006 in an Energy Informa- but ethanol is only made from cellulose and hemicelluloses
tion Agency report (December 2007 Petroleum Supply with currently available hydrolysis and fermentation technolo-
Monthly, Appendix D). Also, Brazil exported 434 million gal- gies.
sity. $25.00
Cost
$20.00
$15.00
Manufacture of pellets and briquettes provides most of these $10.00
advantages, with the exception of higher energy density. $5.00
These fuels are dry and better energy carriers than wet wood. $0.00
Also, in the case of fireplace log briquettes that are usually
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Charcoal
Throughout history, charcoal manufacture has been used to Figure 1. Representative average costs per million Btu of
five fuels as published in the Federal Register by the U.S.
improve fuel characteristics of wood. It is a simple, but cum-
Department of Energy on March 16, 2007. These fuels are
bersome, process that characteristically requires much atten- compared with wood pellets selling at $150 per ton and
tion to details to prevent air pollution. Charcoal manufacture wood chips selling at a minimum of $30 per green ton.
in the United States is limited primarily to briquettes for resi-
dential and recreational use and, to a lesser degree, to manu-
facture activated carbon for industry. In some countries,
Ash—The noncombustible components of fuel. Combined heat and power (CHP)—The simultaneous pro-
duction of heat and mechanical work or electricity from a sin-
Ash fusion temperature—The temperature at which ash gle fuel.
melts.
Combustion air—Air that is used for the burning of a fuel.
Biogas—A gas produced from biomass, usually combustible.
Combustion efficiency—The efficiency of converting avail-
Biomass—Organic matter available on a renewable basis. able chemical energy in the fuel to heat. It measures only the
Biomass includes forest and mill residues, agricultural crops completeness of fuel combustion that occurs in the combus-
and wastes, wood and wood wastes, animal wastes, livestock tion chamber.
operation residues, aquatic plants, fast-growing trees and
plants, and municipal and industrial wastes. Combustor—The primary combustion unit, usually located
next to the boiler or heat exchanger.
Bottom ash—Ash that collects under the grates of a combus-
tion furnace. Cyclone separator—A flue-gas particulate-removal device
that creates a vortex to separate solid particles from the hot gas
Boiler horsepower (BHP)—The equivalent of heat required stream.
to change 15.6 kg (34.5 lb) per hour of water at 212°F (100°C)
to steam at 212°F (100°C). One BHP equals 9.81 kW (33,479 Densified biomass fuel—Biomass material that has been
Btu/h). dried and compressed to increase its density (e.g., pellets).
Bridging—Wood fuel in a storage bin, hopper, or conveying District energy system—A system using central energy
system that supports itself although the fuel beneath has plants to meet the heating or cooling needs or both of residen-
moved. Bridging is one of the most common problems associ- tial, institutional, commercial, and industrial buildings.
ated with wood-handling systems.
Excess air—The amount of combustion air supplied to the fire
British thermal unit (Btu)—A standard unit of energy equal that exceeds the theoretical air requirement to give complete
to the heat required to increase the temperature of 1 lb (0.45 combustion.
kg) of water 1°F (0.56°C).
Flue gas—All gases and products of combustion exhausted
Carbon cycle—The process of transporting and transforming through the flue or chimney.
carbon throughout the natural life cycle of a tree from the re-
moval of CO2 from the atmosphere to the accumulation of Fly ash—Ash transported through the combustion chamber by
carbon in the tree as it grows, and the release of CO2 back into the exhaust gases and generally deposited in the boiler heat
the atmosphere when the tree naturally decays or is burned. exchanger.
Carbon sequestration—The provision of long-term carbon
storage in the terrestrial biosphere, underground, or oceans, so Fuel cell—A cell similar to a battery that uses an electro-
that the buildup of carbon dioxide (principal greenhouse gas) chemical reverse electrolysis process to directly convert the
concentration in the atmosphere reduces or slows. chemical energy of a fuel (gas, propane) into electricity, heat,
and water.
Char—Carbon-rich combustible solids that result from pyro-
lysis of wood in the early stages of combustion. Char can be Gasifier—Any device that changes solid biomass into a gase-
converted to combustible gases under certain conditions or ous fuel.
burned directly on the grate.
Hog fuel—Fuel generated by grinding wood and wood waste
Clinker—A slag-like material formed in the combustion for use in a combustor.
process when the temperature of combustion exceeds the ash
fusion temperature of the fuel. Kilowatt—A standard unit for expressing the rate of electrical
power and useful heat output. The symbols e and th stand for
Chipper—A large device that reduces logs, whole trees, slab electrical and thermal, respectively.
wood, or lumber to chips of more or less uniform size. Sta-
tionary chippers are used in sawmills, whereas trailers Live-bottom trailer—A self-unloading tractor-trailer with a
mounted whole-tree chippers are used in the woods. hydraulically operated moving floor used to remove biomass
fuel.
Cofiring—Utilization of bioenergy feedstocks as a supple-
mentary energy source in high-efficiency boilers. Metering bin—A bin in the fuel-feed stream that allows a
precise feed rate of the fuel to the fire.