Capturing Analog Sound For Digital Preservation

Capturing Analog Sound
for Digital Preservation:

Report of a Roundtable Discussion of Best
Practices for Transferring Analog Discs and Tapes
March 2006
��
��
��
��
��
Commissioned for and sponsored by the
��
��
��
Council on Library and Information Resources

and Library of Congress
Washington, D.C.
��
ii
The National Recording Preservation Board

The National Recording Preservation Board was established at the Library of Congress by the National
Recording Preservation Act of 2000. Among the provisions of the law are a directive to the Board to
study and report on the state of sound recording preservation in the United States. More information
about the National Recording Preservation Board can be found at http://www.loc.gov/rr/record/nrpb/.
ISBN 1-932326-25-1
ISBN 978-1-932326-25-3
CLIR Publication No. 137
Copublished by:

1755 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Suite 500
Washington, DC 20036
Web site at http://www.clir.org
and
Library of Congress
101 Independence Avenue, SE
Washington, DC 20540
Web site at http://www.loc.gov
Additional copies are available for $20 per copy. Orders must be placed through CLIR’s Web site.
This publication is also available online at no charge at http://www.clir.org/pubs/abstract/pub137abst.html.
The paper in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard
8
for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials ANSI Z39.48-1984.
Copyright 2006 in compilation by the Council on Library and Information Resources and the Library of Congress. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or transcribed in any form without permission of the publishers. Requests for reproduction or other
uses or questions pertaining to permissions should be submitted in writing to the Director of Communications at the Council on
Library and Information Resources.
iii
Contents
Foreword ........................................................................................................................iv
Preface .............................................................................................................................v
Part One .......................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction........................................................................................................... 1
The Preservation Challenge:
Changing Technologies for Recorded Sound ....................................... 1
Addressing the Challenge of Preserving Our Audio Heritage .......... 3
Summary of Meeting Discussions ..................................................................... 4

Mitigating Deterioration of the Original Analog Carrier ................... 4
Obtaining an Accurate Transfer ............................................................. 8
Best Practices for Digital Conversion/Considering
a Sampling Standard .............................................................................. 10
The Human Touch versus Automated Transfer ................................. 11
Creating Metadata .................................................................................. 12
Recommendations .................................................................................. 13
Conclusion ............................................................................................... 16
Part Two ........................................................................................................................ 17
Recommended Procedures for Transferring Analog Audio Tape and

Analog Audio Disc for Digital Output, with Participant Commentary ..... 17
Appendix 1. Suggested Road Map for Best Practices Document

for Analog-to-Digital Conversion ..................................................... 34
Appendix 2. Meeting Participants ........................................................................... 37

iv
Foreword
For more than 115 years audio recordings have documented our culture and
enabled us to share artistic expressions and entertainment. Among all the me-
dia employed to record human creativity, sound recordings have undergone
particularly radical changes in the last 25 years. The “digital revolution” has
introduced new audio formats to consumers and library collections. Institu-
tional archives are now making a transition from preserving audio collections
on tape reels to creating digital files. Libraries and archives face both oppor-
tunities and challenges. New distribution systems have provided archives
with a broader universe from which to acquire collections, but, at the same
time, new formats have created new demands on our preservation resources.
In the National Recording Preservation Act of 2000, the U.S. Congress rec-
ognized the significance of sound recordings in our lives and the need to sus-
tain them for future generations. That law created in the Library of Congress
the National Recording Registry of historically, culturally, and aesthetically sig-
nificant recordings; the National Recording Preservation Foundation; and the
National Recording Preservation Board, a body of recording industry and li-
brary professionals who advise the Library of Congress on preservation issues.
Congress’s commitment to assuring the future of professional audio pres-
ervation was further demonstrated in the law’s directive to the Recording
Board to conduct a study of “the current state of sound recording archiving,
preservation and restoration activities.” The study was to include, according
to the legislation, an examination of “the establishment of clear standards for
copying old sound recordings.” This publication, the third in the series for the
preservation study and the first to address technical issues relating to audio
preservation, provides some useful indicators of progress in audio preservation
standards by reviewing current practices in copying analog discs and tapes.
While libraries develop ways to maintain and serve their digital collec-
tions, they still face challenges in maintaining audio collections in older for-
mats. Analog discs and tapes continue to require attention and pose particu-
lar challenges. For historical audio recordings to be accessible to researchers
in the future, specialized equipment must be maintained for playback. Many
of these analog recordings are deteriorating and must be reformatted while
they are still playable.
Authoritative manuals on how to create preservation copies of analog
audio recordings do not yet exist. There are, however, many highly skilled
preservation engineers working throughout the United States. To begin
to fulfill the Congressional mandate to establish standards for audio
preservation, the Library hosted a roundtable discussion in 2004 and
invited some of these talented engineers to share their methods for copying
recordings. The roundtable revealed agreement on most practices and on a
number of areas in which further research is needed. I am extremely grateful
to these professionals for donating their time and sharing their expertise.
As this report indicates, much more work remains if we are to preserve the
knowledge and expertise of these individuals in order to inform preservation
professionals in the future. The National Recording Preservation Board
is committed to documenting best practices for sustenance of our audio
heritage and sharing that work with the preservation community.
James H. Billington
Librarian of Congress
v
Preface
The ability to record and play back the sounds that surround us—human
voices, musical performances, the sounds of nature—has existed for little more
than 125 years. Yet the body of recorded sound that has been produced since
its inception in 1877 already constitutes one of the greatest creative, historical,
and scientific legacies of the United States. Given the importance of recorded
sound to our economic well-being, cultural enrichment, and ability to stay in-
formed by means of radio, television, and the World Wide Web, it is alarming
to realize that nearly all recorded sound is in peril of disappearing or becom-
ing inaccessible within a few generations.
Our audio heritage is fragile because it depends on technologies and me-
dia that are constantly improving and are thus constantly replaced and unsup-
ported by newer generations of hardware and software. Our continued ability
to hear recorded sound will depend, first and foremost, on technologies that
capture audio signal on obsolete formats—such as wire recordings, cylinders,
instantaneous lacquer discs—and migrate or reformat them onto current tech-
nologies. To ensure that the recorded sounds of the past century are available
for study and pleasure by future generations, we must not only preserve the
media on which they were recorded but also guarantee that we have the hard-
ware to play back the recordings, an understanding of the media, and the ex-
pertise to extract the best-possible sounds from antique recordings of all types.
That said, the formidable technical challenges are merely the proximate cause
of the fragility of these recordings. The ultimate challenge to providing access
now and in the future is political and organizational: As a society, we must
find the will and the resources to define this problem as a priority and to ad-
dress the problems that technology poses.
Recognizing the importance of our audio heritage to the nation, the U.S.
Congress created the National Recording Preservation Board (NRPB) in the
National Recording Preservation Act of 2000. Operating under the aegis of the
Library of Congress (LC), the NRPB is leading a national effort to address the
preservation of and access to the recorded sound held by libraries, archives,
historical societies, studio vaults, and private collectors as well as by others
who create, care for, and care about audio. In the legislation that created the
NRPB, Congress directed the Board and the Library to report on the current
state of recorded sound preservation and to develop a national plan to pre-
serve and broaden access to recorded sound. The Library asked the Council on
Library and Information Resources (CLIR) to commission background inves-
tigations and to convene experts to inform their study. This publication is the
third of a series that has been produced in response to the LC’s request. The
first two publications reported on the accessibility of out-of-print recordings
and copyright of recorded sound.*
This report is the first of two documents that will investigate procedures
to reformat sound on analog carriers to digital media or files. It summarizes
discussions and recommendations emerging from a meeting of leading audio
preservation engineers held January 29–30, 2004, to assess the present state of
standards and best practices for capturing sound from analog discs and tapes.
* Survey of Reissues of U. S. Recordings, by Tim Brooks (August 2005) and Copyright Issues
Relevant to Digital Preservation and Dissemination of Pre-1972 Commercial Sound Recordings by
Libraries and Archives, by June M. Besek (December 2005).
vi
A companion report, dealing with key aspects of digital technologies, includ-

ing file formats and standards, metadata, storage media, repositories, soft-
ware tools, and collaboration between the archival and scientific community,
will be published later this year.
The meeting summary, presented in part one of this report, was written
by music writer and historian Paul Kingsbury. Prior to the meeting, Larry
Appelbaum and Peter Alyea of the Library of Congress prepared a step-by-
step description of practices for transferring two source materials—analog
audio tape and analog audio disc—to digital for the purpose of preservation
reformatting. These workflow documents were edited and distributed to par-
ticipants before the meeting and served as the focus of in-depth discussions
of preferred reformatting practices at the meeting. Annotations were made
to the documents as a result of these discussions, and the revised drafts were
then sent back to participants for further comment and annotation through a
listserv. That online discussion was closed April 1, 2004. The resulting docu-
ment is presented in part two of this report.
Much may be learned from the collective expertise of the roundtable
members, many of whom are the country’s most respected audio preserva-
tion engineers. Documented here are some of the techniques that have been
developed to transfer deteriorating sound recordings, and the tools used. The
discussions reveal the many times these engineers agree on approaches to
obtain the best possible audio transfer from historical recordings, and the oc-
casional instances in which they disagree. The report is not intended to be a
handbook on audio preservation engineering. Rather, it is an important com-
ponent of the study of the current state of audio preservation that Congress
requested of the National Recording Preservation Board: a survey of achieve-
ments, concurrence, divergence, and needs for further research.
The meeting was devoted nearly exclusively to a discussion of signal-
capture techniques. The NRPB sponsored a subsequent round of discussions
on March 10–11, 2006; the topic at these sessions was digital file standards
and metadata schema. In preparation for those discussions, recording engi-
neer and producer George Massenburg prepared a set of proposed standards
for digital file creation; it is provided in Appendix 1.
Responsibility for ensuring long-term access to the recorded-sound heri-
tage of this nation rests with many communities and organizations, public
and private, technical and legal, scholarly and popular—indeed, with all who
care about recorded sound. LC and the NRPB hope that this report and oth-
ers that follow will enable those involved to work from a common pool of
knowledge and expertise toward solutions that will benefit all.
Abby Smith, Consultant

Samuel Brylawski, Consultant

National Recording Preservation Board
Library of Congress
1
PART ONE
Paul Kingsbury
INTRODUCTION
The Preservation Challenge:
Changing Technologies for Recorded Sound
The recording and playback of sound began with Thomas Edison’s
invention of the phonograph in 1877. In the wake of that landmark
innovation, history has seen the emergence of one innovative record-
ing technology after another. Each new technology has rapidly sup-
planted its predecessor. Thus, 10 years after the arrival of Edison’s
phonograph, Emile Berliner patented his disc gramophone. And
within a few decades, Edison’s cylinder recordings were largely
replaced by Berliner’s more-convenient flat audio discs, recorded
at approximately 78 revolutions per minute (rpm) and usually com-
posed of hard but brittle shellac. Following World War II, the shellac
78 gave way to the almost-simultaneous introduction of the flex-
ible vinyl 45-rpm single and 33-1/3–rpm long-playing (LP) record in
1948–1949 and to magnetic recording tape. Magnetic tape, developed
in Germany and brought to the United States after World War II,
came into widespread use in commercial recording sessions by the
late 1940s.
By the mid-1960s, when record companies began to offer for sale
prerecorded, continuous-loop, eight-track tapes, consumers began
participating in the audio tape revolution in earnest. Smaller, more-
convenient cassette tapes—both blank and prerecorded—reached
the market by the end of the 1960s. The next major breakthrough in
consumer playback came with the arrival of the first widely avail-
able digital carrier, the compact disc (CD), which was introduced in
1982. Since then, the parade of new playback and recording formats
has continued. As digital audio has gained precedence, new digital
carriers—digital versatile discs (DVDs) and MP3 players, among oth-
ers—are already jostling the CD for preeminence.
2 Capturing Analog Sound for Digital Preservation
As one considers the swift evolution and succession of recording

and playback technology, it is clear that innovation and obsolescence
are constants in audio recording. Cylinders, 78-rpm shellac records,
and eight-track tapes are no longer commercially viable media. The
LP disc and the cassette tape have seen declining sales for some time.
For many years after digital recording and playback came into
wide use in the 1980s, there was an ongoing debate in the record-
ing community about the merits of preserving audio programs in a
digital, rather than analog, format. In 1997, in an in-depth, two-part
series on problems of audio preservation and storage within the
major record companies in the United States published in Billboard
magazine, reporter Bill Holland stated that the consensus among
leading audio engineers and such organizations as the Audio Engi-
neering Society (AES), the National Academy of Recording Arts and
Sciences (NARAS), and the Association for Recorded Sound Col-
lections (ARSC) was that “because analog tape has been proved to
last, generally, and because the shelf life of digital tape is unknown,
recordings should be stored or backed up, at least in the analog tape
format.”1
Since that time, however, it has become increasingly clear that
analog magnetic tape no longer provides the safe haven for preserva-
tion that it once may have. As of 2005, only one major manufacturer,
Quantegy (formerly Ampex), still manufactures analog magnetic
recording tape stock for the U.S. market. Only a handful of compa-
nies still manufacture the machines that play open-reel tapes. Some
tapes manufactured for preservation reformatting, such as polyester
tape, have been found to deteriorate over time. For example, they
can be damaged by hydrolysis, the process by which the chemical
that bonds the recording oxide to the polyester base absorbs mois-
ture from the air. Upon playback, these tapes can break down and
become unplayable.
Increasingly, leading audio engineers and audio preservationists
believe that the future of audio preservation is in the digital arena.
Unlike subsequent generations of analog dubs, each of which is
farther removed from the original sound (much as a copy of a film
photograph is removed in quality from that of the original image),
each digital capture is capable of producing an identical copy of the
original recording. Digital recordings are also easily transported and
transmitted in a variety of ways, including the World Wide Web,
making public access easy and cost-effective. Acknowledging that
digital tape is as subject to deterioration as analog tape, some pres-
ervationists are developing systems to manage sound recordings as
digital files, to be archived in repositories and periodically refreshed
and migrated.
1 Holland, Bill. 1997. Upgrading Labels’ Vaults No Easy Archival Task. Billboard
(July 19): 99.
Report of a Roundtable Discussion of Best Practices for Transferring Analog Discs and Tapes 3
Addressing the Challenge of

Preserving Our Audio Heritage
The importance of preserving and ensuring access to the nation’s
audio heritage is now widely recognized, and many in the public
and private sectors have called for a coordinated national effort to
address the preservation challenge.
In response, in 2000 the U.S. Congress enacted Public Law 106-
474, creating the National Recording Preservation Board (NRPB)
under the aegis of the Library of Congress (LC) and charging these
bodies to identify and address the major challenges to audio pres-
ervation. The legislation specifically charges the LC and NRPB to
conduct a study of “the current state of sound recording archiving,
preservation, and restoration activities.” Areas to be explored include
“the methodology and standards needed to make the transition from
analog ‘open reel’ preservation of sound recordings to digital pres-
ervation of sound recordings,” “standards for access to preserved
sound recordings by researchers, educators, and other interested
parties,” and “the establishment of clear standards for copying old
sound recordings (including equipment specifications and equaliza-
tion guidelines).” The study is intended to inform key players in
the preservation of recorded sound and to be a prelude to a national
plan.
As a first step in this process, in January 2004 LC and CLIR con-
vened a group of leading audio engineers and audio preservation
specialists, including several audio engineer members of the NRPB,
to participate in a roundtable discussion of preferred methods of
transferring analog audio for reformatting as digital files. (A list of
participants is provided in Appendix 2.) The goals of the meeting
were to determine what areas of agreement and disagreement exist
among reformatting experts, to identify gaps in knowledge about
crucial techniques in audio transfer, and to make recommendations
to LC and the NRPB about actions to be taken to address those prob-
lems. This roundtable group was charged with focusing on migrat-
ing an audio signal from endangered analog carriers—disc and tape
primarily—and the challenges of capturing that signal digitally. A
second group of engineers and librarians met in March 2006 to dis-
cuss issues related to conversion to digital media and metadata.
Participants were asked to confine their discussions to the two
most common forms of analog media—audio discs and audio tapes.
(Less-prevalent forms, such as cylinders and magnetized steel wire
recordings, were left for future, more-detailed study.) Participants
worked from two workflow documents prepared by preservation
reformatting experts at LC. By working through each step in the pro-
cess of reformatting analog tapes and discs, participants were able to
identify areas of accord on best practice; areas of disagreement; and
areas where further study, or further development of effective solu-
tions, is needed.
Although group members represented a fairly broad range of
audio engineering specialties, they found themselves in agreement
on nearly all the discussed aspects of transferring analog audio to
digital. The following text summarizes these major points. For more
details, readers are invited to turn to part two, which contains the
original workflow documents along with extensive annotations
made by meeting participants.
SUMMARY OF MEETING DISCUSSIONS
This section summarizes the main technical points covered in the

discussions. It shows where participants agreed and disagreed on
preservation procedures and what topics they felt needed further
study. Roundtable members’ recommendations on procedure are dis-
played in italics.
One point emerged clearly from the discussions: Although many
aspects of transferring analog audio to digital media require hard-
ware and software tools and some are amenable to automation and
batch processing, there are many areas in which a trained ear and
years of experience are by far the most important tools. “The ideal,”
one participant noted, “is to use ears in conjunction with measure-
ment.” Another engineer stated, “Technology will never replace the
listener.” Subjective as listening can be, there is still no substitute for
the trained ear when reformatting sound recordings.
Mitigating Deterioration of the Original Analog Carrier

Audio Discs
Commercial audio discs date from 1894; two-sided discs first ap-
peared in 1907–1908. In physical composition, audio discs can range
from fragile forms such as rubber (the earliest disc recordings),
acetate or lacquer (sometimes with glass, aluminum, or cardboard
backings), to more-durable shellac and vinyl discs and the metal
masters (“metal parts”) used to stamp out commercial discs. The dis-
tinct physical characteristics of each disc type require different, often
highly specialized, techniques to coax the sound from the carrier.
Although participants did discuss the possibility of using ad-
vanced materials-science technology (such as laser refraction and
spectroscopy) to help identify disc composition, it appears that no
archives in the preservation field currently uses such high-tech as-
sessment tools. Roundtable members agreed that in nearly all cases,
experienced audio engineers could readily identify the composition
of a recorded disc. Thus, although use of such technologies may be
desirable, these experts did not see it as urgent or essential.
The roundtable panel identified several best practices that hold
true for virtually all disc formats. These practices are as follows:
• Cleaning the disc. When transferring an audio program from an

analog disc, one should always clean the disc first, except in the cases
of cracks or delamination. Cleaning methods vary somewhat de-
pending upon the composition of the disc. Generally, one should
start with nondestructive, dry methods, such as gentle dusting,

vacuuming, and antistatic brushing. Nondestructive cleaning so-
lutions, such as deionized water or a “pure” (i.e., fragrance- and
additive-free), mild, low-sudsing liquid soap, are also recom-
mended.
• Choosing the stylus. The second step is to carefully determine the

correct stylus size. This is essential for several reasons. First, record
grooves can vary from one disc format to the next. Moreover, pre-
vious playings of a recording often wear one part of the groove.
In such cases, a larger or smaller stylus may be selected to track a
higher or lower section, respectively, of the groove wall; this tactic
often produces a cleaner signal. Selection of the best stylus, in the
opinion of the roundtable participants, is the most important fac-
tor in the signal-extraction stage of transferring audio from disc
and achieving accurate sound reproduction. (This assumes that all
the equipment has been carefully selected and set up.)
Participants agreed that the ability to choose the correct sty-
lus is a skill that comes only with experience and with expert
listening comparisons. They disagreed to some extent, however,
about whether it is possible to save time spent in trial-and-error
needle drops by making scientific determinations about the record
grooves—namely, by examining the grooves with a microscope
and taking measurements. Some audio engineers suggested that
this might be a fruitful approach, while some who specialize in
historic discs were convinced that the choice of a stylus is a mat-
ter that can be determined best by an experienced engineer on the
basis of expert listening, and that use of a microscope and mea-
surements was unimportant.
Once the best stylus is chosen, it is important to set the tracking
force at the lowest weight that still gives optimum signal capture and
fidelity so that wear on the grooves can be minimized.
There was some disagreement on whether the stylus itself
should be used as a cleaning tool, allowing it to scrape out dirt
upon playback as it passes through the groove. Participants ulti-
mately agreed that this method, if used at all, should be restricted
to shellac discs and metal parts, which are harder than vinyl or
lacquer. Using the stylus to clean record grooves tends to do more
damage to vinyl records, especially if they have not been properly
cleaned.
• Choosing the playback speed. The next step is to determine the

correct playback speed. In discs manufactured since World War II,
speed is usually a clear case of 78, 45, or 33-1/3 rpm, but there are
exceptions to these generally reliable categories. Before World War
II, even though discs were generally recorded at approximately
78 rpm, there was no consistent and precise calibration of record
speed in the commercial recording industry. Likewise, the speed
of discs cut in field recordings can vary, depending on the regular-
ity of the power source for the disc-cutting machine.
Audio Tape
Audio tape is a German invention, perfected during World War II
when electrical giant AEG joined forces with the chemical firm I. G.
Farben to create recording tape covered with magnetized iron oxides.
Tape recording machines manufactured by the Brush and Ampex
companies made their way into some recording studios as early as
1947. The earliest audio tapes were paper based, followed not long
after by tapes with a cellulose acetate base, which were in wide use
from the 1940s into the early 1960s. Since that time, magnetic record-
ing tapes have been produced primarily on polyester tape (some-
times known by the trade name Mylar) in the United States; polyvi-
nyl chloride is also sometimes used in Europe.
• Identifying the tape. When preparing to transfer sound from an

analog audio tape, the engineer’s first step is to examine the original
tape box, if available, and any accompanying documentation. Knowl-
edge of the age and make of the tape will help the engineer decide
what to do to mitigate any problems that may arise.
However, documentation may be misleading. Notations may
be inaccurate, or the tape could be in the wrong box and therefore
have improper documentation. One roundtable member lamented
that while one cannot rely on the tape box to provide definitive
information, it is often the best or the only source available. In
some cases, an engineer may ask the person who provided the
tape about the source and date of this tape.
To handle a tape properly and anticipate problems that may
arise in playing it, the audio engineer must identify the tape’s com-
position. Visual inspection of an original source tape may reveal
a number of physical problems that will need to be dealt with
to preserve the tape and to capture the best-possible signal from
it. Materials-science technologies can be used, especially by an
archive that is based within a research university and that can
engage a university’s science and engineering departments in
cooperative programs. Such expertise might prove helpful in
identifying mystery tape stock; investigating cases of outgassing
of unusual chemicals, emulsion components, or constituents; or
examining subconventional microscopic tears and stress fractures.
Few archives in the preservation field have access to such high-
tech assessment tools. Fortunately, visual inspection alone will
generally tell an experienced engineer what sort of tape he or she
is dealing with. Above all, the roundtable discussants agreed, the
best technique for evaluating the tape is one that is nondestructive.
• Handling splices. The most serious problem frequently encoun-

tered in working with analog tapes is damaged splices. Round-
table participants strongly recommended that all damaged splices be
repaired before transfer. They identified this as a best practice.
However, some participants noted that there is a physical risk
to tapes when removing splices. Audio preservationists should
have wide latitude in removing and repairing damaged or de-
teriorating splices. One recommended cleaning method is to use

naphtha-based lighter fluid or isopropyl alcohol to remove adhesive resi-
due from plastic or polyester tapes. This method, however, has not
been thoroughly tested for its potential long-term effect on tape.
Alcohol should not be used on acetate tapes because it will dissolve them.
Roundtable members agreed that proper cleaning and repair of
damaged tape splices is a key core competency for audio preser-
vation engineers. As one participant noted, “Splice cleaning takes
a lot of experience and expertise. Otherwise, you will destroy
something you cannot get back.”
As an additional best practice, participants stated that when
repairing problem splices, one should always replace old paper or
plastic tape leaders with new, acid-free paper leaders. Old paper lead-
ers may be acidic and cause tape deformations, and plastic leaders
may accumulate electrostatic charges that could discharge during
playback. A paper leader, by contrast, is electrically inert. Finally,
whenever possible, the engineer should slowly rewind the respliced
original tape onto a clean, slotless NAB hub and metal reel.
• Handling damage and deformation. Audio tapes may have suf-

fered from poor storage conditions. Dampness can lead to a warp-
ing of the tape, a condition known as cupping. This condition pri-
marily affects acetate tape and prevents the full surface of the tape
from coming into flat contact with tape heads during playback.
The ideal way to mitigate cupping is to slowly wind the tape onto a
clean, slotless NAB hub and metal take-up reel in a “B wind” (i.e., oxide
side out), tails out, and store it in a climate-controlled environment for
three to six months. Roundtable participants identified this as a best
practice. If an archive’s transfer schedule does not permit three to
six months of B-wind storage, any amount of storage in B-wind
might be helpful. If necessary, advanced techniques can be used.
These include adjusting tape-to-head tension or, as a final resort,
using pressure pads for playback.
Some tapes, because of inherent manufacturing defects, may
suffer loss of oxide. When the oxide comes off the tape in strips,
this condition is known as blocking. If the oxide particles are pow-
dery, the condition is known as shedding. Whereas a tape suffering
from blocking cannot be played without permanently damaging
the tape and should be set aside for future transfer with later tech-
nologies, tapes that shed can be transferred, provided the engineer
periodically removes loose oxide from the tape path.
Some polyester tapes suffer from hydrolysis, in which the
chemical that bonds the recording oxide to the tape absorbs mois-
ture from the air. This condition is commonly referred to as sticky
shed or binder breakdown. When played, these tapes make a telltale
squealing sound. They may break down and become unplayable.
The currently recommended best practice is to bake such tapes at
low heat in a convection oven or an incubator before playback. Partici-
pants noted, however, that this remedy is temporary; the tape will
revert over time. Roundtable members agreed that more research
needs to be done on alternative ways of alleviating hydrolysis for

polyester tapes. (Acetate tapes may also emit a squealing noise
during playback. This is a different problem, known as lubricant
loss, that should be treated through relubrication. Acetate tapes
should never be baked because the heat will ruin the tape.)
• Cleaning. Tapes often require cleaning because of poor long-term

storage that can leave deposits ranging from dust and dirt to mold
and infestation. As with discs, the preferred cleaning methods to
begin with are nondestructive and dry. Vacuuming using a HEPA
filter whenever possible to guard against health hazards (such as
mold and hazardous particulates) or contamination of other me-
dia is a recommended first step when dealing with dry deposits. Tapes,
unlike discs, should not be cleaned as a matter of course: Cleaning
should be done only when needed to achieve accurate playback.
For cleaning tapes, some roundtable members highly recom-
mended Pellon, a commercially available, nonabrasive, nonlubri-
cant synthetic material developed in the 1930s for the garment
industry. For complete cleaning, each side of the audio tape—
backing and oxide—should be wound slowly against the Pellon.
Slow-wind cleaning of tapes using Pellon (by hand or by machine) is a
recommended best practice.
If a tape is wet, a distilled-water rinse can be helpful, followed
by air-drying, vacuuming, and a slow Pellon wind. Although
naphtha-based lighter fluid is recommended for spot cleaning of
damaged splices and adhesive residue, it is not recommended for
cleaning of entire tapes.
Obtaining an Accurate Transfer

Audio Discs
Often, fragile shellac or glass discs suffer breakage, or some lacquer
may peel off of instantaneous discs. Damage may make playback on
a conventional turntable impossible. Lacquer shards, even if all of
them have been saved, can sometimes no longer be pieced together
because of shrinkage. In such instances, the roundtable group unani-
mously recommended to save all pieces of the broken record. Signal-re-
construction methods, such as optical imaging technologies that are
now being developed, could recapture audio programs from such
discs within the foreseeable future. With respect to both audio tape and
audio discs, roundtable members recommended that damaged, unplayable
recordings be stored until appropriate treatment becomes available.
Damaged discs. If an audio disc is damaged but not broken into
pieces, various methods can be used to play it. Cracks and scratches
should simply be played through, with the attendant noise noted
in the metadata to accompany the digital preservation copy. Warps
can sometimes be played either by using a slower speed or adjust-
ing tracking weight. As always, thorough documentation of transfer
techniques is highly recommended. One participant noted that Sony
BMG Music Studios has had success using a special turntable fitted
with a vacuum pump to correct for warps. However, this vacuum

arrangement can be used only with flexible vinyl recordings and not
with shellac or lacquer-coated instantaneous discs. Furthermore, it is
expensive.
Groove abnormalities. A number of groove abnormalities can be
compensated for. In the absence of a lead-in groove, the roundtable
members recommended trial-and-error stylus drops until as much of
the audio program as possible, including the needle drop, has been
captured. The problem should be documented in accompanying
metadata. Shallow or worn grooves can be dealt with by trial-and-
error stylus selection, making careful comparisons of various dubs
recorded from each stylus. Nonconcentric grooves (a manufacturing
error) create an audio problem called wow—a low-pitch deviation of
frequency resulting from irregular motion in the disc. Roundtable
consensus was that adjustments for wow can be made only at the time of
transfer by adjusting the disc on the turntable. No post-transfer tools are
currently available to compensate for wow. Thus, the group agreed
that wow should always be corrected for prior to transfer and that it is
pointless to make transfers that simply preserve a disc’s wow. Simi-
larly, a disc whose spindle hole is punched off-center can be compen-
sated for mechanically by using a smaller-than-standard spindle and
adjusting the positioning of the disc to get an accurate playback.
Audio Tape
Choosing the playback speed. Once an original analog tape is in
condition to play, the correct playback speed must be determined.
The audio preservation engineer should have playback machines
capable of playing at all known speeds with all known tape head
configurations, plus a variable pitch control. When in doubt about a
tape’s speed, the engineer should start at 7-1/2 inches per second and
listen.
Expert listening is the first step in determining playback speed.
Roundtable members shared a few basic guidelines for determining
correct speed. For example, piano recordings are usually tuned to a
standard middle A (440 Hz). Music or language specialists may be
able to determine correct pitch on the basis of their knowledge of the
program content. In addition, the discussants recommended listen-
ing for low-level ambient, electrical-power-line hum (50 Hz for Euro-
pean recordings; 60 Hz for North American). Checking background
electrical hum with test equipment may help determine the correct
playback speed. Audio preservation engineers should be aware that
recording speed can vary throughout the recording; this is particu-
larly true of field recordings.
Preparing the tape for transfer. Roundtable members recom-
mended that engineers undertake the following steps when transfer-
ring sound from analog tape:
• Always adjust the azimuth of the tape head to the original source tape
being transferred to accommodate the possibility that the source
tape was originally recorded off azimuth. In addition to using an
oscilloscope to adjust for optimal high frequency and phase coher-
ence, the transfer engineer should listen to the recording. (Some

roundtable participants noted that repeated adjustment of tape
head azimuth could increase the chances of uneven head wear,
requiring more maintenance.)
• In setting recording levels, use a recording industry-accepted frequency-
alignment tape. Have a collection of various frequency-alignment
tapes to accommodate different flux densities.
• Use peak-level meters, rather than volume-unit meters, to check re-
cord levels.
• Be certain that the monitoring equipment does not introduce distortion
into the signal chain.
• Be aware that knowing the target medium (e.g., CD-R, DAT) is essen-
tial in setting proper recording levels. When creating a digital preser-
vation copy, level setting is dependent on the bit depth of the linear
PCM (pulse code modulation) recording. Higher bit depths pro-
vide greater dynamic range. Recordings of speeches and panel dis-
cussions may include random, momentary noises such as coughs
and table bumping. Levels need not be adjusted to compensate
for such sporadic, unintended spikes. Under certain well-defined
circumstances, automated level adjusting processors (such as com-
pressors or limiters) may be acceptable during transfer.
• Make sure that the playback chain has a playback curve that matches the
source. Most analog tapes are set to standard playback equaliza-
tion (EQ) curves, either that of the NAB (National Association of
Broadcasters) or the CCIR (Consultative Committee for Interna-
tional Radio).
Roundtable participants could not agree as to whether it is ever

possible to transfer audio from an original source without introduc-
ing some level of signal alteration, however negligible. Some argued
that systems do exist that will pass a signal unprocessed in its purest
original form (although such systems were not identified). Members
did agree on the necessity of monitoring whether noise has been un-
intentionally introduced during the transfer.
Best Practices for Digital Conversion/Considering

a Sampling Standard
Once an analog disc or tape has been readied for transfer and the sig-
nal path has been properly tested and calibrated, the signal is ready
for digital capture.
Roundtable members did not deal in depth with the details of
digital conversion. However, one of the engineers attending submit-
ted a suggested road map that outlined their recommended best
practices for digital capture (Appendix 1). Following a brief, incon-
clusive discussion of the document, the group agreed that it was a
useful work in progress and that it should be shared with the audio
engineering community for future comment and possible group
ratification.
It should be noted, however, that the first two recommendations

on the road map document, namely, recommended digital bit depth
and sample rate for archival preservation, were discussed at some
length and that there was disagreement over them.
Choosing the sampling rate. Since the commercial introduc-
tion of the compact disc in 1982, the standard sampling rate for CDs
(known within the audio engineering trade as the “red book stan-
dard”) has been 44.1 kHz, with a bit depth of 16 bits. The sampling
rate of 44.1 kHz was a deliberate compromise by the developers of
the CD in which they balanced audio fidelity versus time capacity
of the discs. In the 20 years since those compromises were made,
the storage capacity for digital recording and digital carriers has in-
creased considerably. The DVD is emerging as a carrier preferred by
some, and it has been configured to handle 96 kHz, 24 bits. The In-
ternational Association for Sound and Video Archives (IASA), based
in Europe, has embraced 96/24 as its standard. Roundtable members
noted that it would be beneficial for the United States to set a stan-
dard that is interoperable with that of Europe.
Near the conclusion of the meeting, discussions focused on
recommended sampling rate and bit depth for audio preservation.
There was considerable disagreement within the group about setting
96/24 as the new digital audio preservation standard. Those who
disagreed noted that down sampling from 96 kHz to 44.1 kHz for
audio CD-Rs has in the past not faithfully reproduced the original
sound. They recommended 88.2 kHz instead of 96 kHz. Those in fa-
vor of the 96/24 standard noted that new digital converters are much
better at down sampling, with negligible loss of audio information.
In addition, they noted that no less than the 96/24 configuration
would be recommended for preservation copies; if user access copies
down sampled to 44.1/16 suffered a minuscule loss in audio quality,
that seemed (to those in favor) an acceptable compromise to keep the
preservation standard high. This issue will be investigated in greater
detail at the next roundtable.
The Human Touch versus Automated Transfer

Although the process of digital capture itself was left mostly for
future discussion, participants at the first roundtable did discuss,
but not agree on, a proposal from one group member that a listener
monitor the entire program every time an archival transfer is made
to a preservation copy. This proposal, which seemed eminently
sensible to several participants, inspired much debate. Ultimately,
participants agreed that however desirable, such a standard is not
practical at a time of real-world budget constraints and staffing exi-
gencies. Batch processing, or high-throughput transferring, is often
a necessary compromise for archives that possess large collections of
fragile, often deteriorating, recordings and small staffs and budgets.
The financial concerns are real for archives, and automation is one of
the keys to affordable solutions.
However, roundtable members were wary of any reformatting

operation that does not entail monitoring by trained, critical listen-
ers. Several participants recommended strongly that when automa-
tion, or other techniques that reduce the amount of real-time moni-
toring, are introduced into a preservation program, there must be
minimum standards for quality control employed to assure that a flat
or straight-across transfer has been made. Tests for such standards
can be scientifically established. Some of the participants suggested
that statisticians or operations research scientists or both be enlisted
to help establish guidelines when non-optimal monitoring condi-
tions are necessary.
Deciding whether or not to use automated or high-throughput
transfer practices can be a complex risk-assessment task. As a best
practice, roundtable members recommended that before a large-scale
digital transfer, an audio archive’s staff carefully review recordings ear-
marked for transfer and create risk-assessment reports to determine which
ones can be safely transferred through automated processes and which will
need staff attention during the transfer.
Preservation archives doing automated transfers need guidelines
and sources of expertise. Roundtable members recommended that
guidelines be developed on how to select which types of recordings
are appropriate for high-throughput preservation. Such guidelines
would factor in the format, content, and condition of media to be
transferred as well as the intended use of the copies. Members noted
that tools also need to be developed to mitigate the damage of poorly
done automated transfers.
Creating Metadata
Metadata is data about data. A digital recording can be accompa-
nied by several kinds of metadata, including descriptive (e.g., track
listings), administrative, and technical (e.g., a description of audio
hardware used in digital transfer, hardware settings, and data com-
pression used). Roundtable discussions of metadata were confined
almost exclusively to administrative and technical metadata, with
the understanding that metadata for preservation warrants a sepa-
rate and more detailed discussion.
The roundtable group strongly recommended that, whenever
possible, transfer engineers should note all documentation (e.g., box no-
tations) that accompanies the analog source tape. During the preservation
transfer process, transfer engineers should note anomalies in tape
(splice problems/repairs, speed variations, blocking/shedding, etc.)
as metadata to accompany the digital preservation copy. Such meta-
data could be embedded, eye legible, or both.
Slate announcements, i.e., brief, spoken, prefatory announce-
ments commonly used in identifying analog preservation copies,
need not be used in digital preservation copies if the engineer is already
embedding identifying metadata as part of the transfer process. Including
such announcements would be a needless redundancy.
Correct and sufficient documentation is of paramount impor-

tance in archiving digital recordings to produce an authentic digital
copy that can be retrieved and migrated as necessary to new plat-
forms and media. The need for proper identification and labeling
cannot be overstated, and the methods for retaining metadata will
depend on the destination media. Overall, the roundtable group
agreed that transfer engineers should generate as much metadata as is
reasonably possible about the nature of the tape, the original recording, and
the transfer. Roundtable members noted that it is much easier to in-
clude metadata while one is working with a recording than to try to
find it later.
Recommendations
In the final segment of the two-day roundtable meetings, partici-
pants made a series of broad recommendations for improving the
practice of analog audio transfer for preservation. The recommenda-
tions were grouped into categories. The salient and most widely sup-
ported recommendations appear below. Each paragraph includes the
recommendation’s priority, as voted by the roundtable participants.
The group was also asked to assign priority for action on these
recommendations. The sidebar on page 14 lists the 15 recommenda-
tions that members believed were most important, presented in order
of priority
Resources/Tools Needed
• Develop a one-page flowchart that offers a series of yes/no ques-
tions to help audio preservation archivists identify the composi-
tion of various types of audio discs and audio tapes. Such a chart
could be invaluable to staff of archives that outsource their audio
preservation transfers. Knowing the composition of the recording
at hand could significantly influence risk-assessment decisions for
the recordings to be transferred (Priority #7).
• Develop a reference chart of problematic media issues, including
tape brands, years of manufacture, etc. (Priority #8).
• Investigate the relevance of technology-transfer methods from
such fields as chemistry and materials science to audio preserva-
tion, particularly in identifying the composition of audio discs and
tapes and the nondestructive playback of discs (Priority #15).
Reference Materials
• Develop a Web site that identifies the core competencies for
audio preservation engineers. This information could be distrib-
uted in video format (Priority #1; see related item below, Core
Competencies).
• Develop a Web-based clearinghouse for information on how
archives can develop a program of digital preservation transfer,
including, for example, information on potential sources of grants
for audio preservation; a resource list of experts on audio preser-
vation and transfer; lists of equipment for audio preservation and
transfer needs; and technical manuals and key specifications for

Summary Recommendations
obsolete and hard-to-find equipment. The resource would include
in Order of Priority
guidelines for developing an audio preservation workstation,
1. Develop core competencies in including selection of hardware, configuration of equipment, opti-
audio preservation engineering. mum wiring for signal flow, and testing (Priority #5).
2. Develop arrangements among • Develop a list of music experts who could be consulted for advice
smaller institutions that allow on problems that arise in analog audio transfer of specific types
for cooperative buying of of musical content (e.g., determining the proper key so that the
esoteric materials and supplies. correct playback speed can be established). In addition, develop a
3. Pursue a research agenda for source of references for issues that might arise in any audio trans-
magnetic tape problems that fer particular to specific types of musical and spoken-word con-
focuses on a less destructive
tent (Priority #11).
solution for hydrolysis than
baking, relubrication of acetate
Research and Development
tapes, abatement of print-
through, and curing of cupping. • Conduct research on magnetic tape problems: (1) research a bet-
4. Develop guidelines for use of ter (i.e., more permanent, less destructive) solution than baking
automated transfer of analog to solve the problem of binder hydrolysis of polyester tapes; (2)
audio to digital preservation devise methods for relubricating acetate tapes; (3) research how to
copies. abate print-through; and 4) research cures for cupping (Priority #3).
5. Develop a Web-based • Do further research into noncontact reading (i.e., nondestructive
clearinghouse for sharing playback) of broken audio discs. Great strides have been made
information on how archives in developing turntables that read audio discs with lasers. Other
can develop digital preservation methods have shown potential for playing some kinds of broken
transfer programs.
discs. In addition, prototyping technologies might be used in “vir-
6. Do further research into
tually” reconstructing disc grooves (Priority #6).
noncontact reading (i.e.,
• Research safe and effective cleaning methods for analog tapes and
nondestructive playback) of
broken audio discs. discs (Priority #10).
7. Develop a flowchart for • Research the life expectancy of various audio formats (Priority #12).
identification of the composition • Develop tools that measure the shape, size, and wear of record
of various types of audio discs grooves.
and tapes. • Develop systems for automated metadata collection.
8. Develop a reference chart of • Research error detection in large digital files through the use of
problematic media issues. embedded, noninvasive signals.
9. Collate relevant audio • Develop noise-reduction detection equipment. Many tapes since
engineering standards from the 1980s have been processed for noise reduction, to the detri-
organizations.
ment of the sound. As one roundtable participant put it, “How
10. Research safe and effective
does one detect this and mitigate it?”
cleaning methods for analog
tapes and discs.
11. Develop a list of music experts. Infrastructure Needs
12. Research the life expectancy of • Develop arrangements among smaller institutions that allow for
various audio formats. cooperative buying of esoteric materials and supplies. Given that
13. Establish regional digital audio there are fewer and fewer suppliers of phonograph styli, tape
repositories. heads, and other obsolete and soon-to-be obsolete equipment, co-
14. Cooperate to develop a operative buying might yield dual benefits. First, it would make
common vocabulary within the it easier for small archival organizations to afford equipment and
field of audio preservation. supplies without each having to buy in bulk. Second, it might es-
15. Investigate the transfer of tablish a stable market and provide enough economic incentive to
technology from such fields
keep some of these suppliers in business (Priority #2).
as chemistry and materials
• Establish regional digital audio repositories. Although some ma-
science to various problems in
jor institutions, such as university libraries and LC, may be able
audio preservation.
to afford the care, upkeep, and digital migration associated with

maintaining a digital repository, many smaller archival organiza-
tions—such as state and local historical societies and independent
nonprofit music archives devoted to jazz, blues, and other forms
of music—may be unable to afford to store and care for their
digital preservation copies over time without cooperative arrange-
ments with other institutions (Priority #13).
• Cooperate to develop a common vocabulary within the field of
audio preservation. Roundtable participants recommended the
development of an online glossary and suggested that this might
be something that LC could undertake (Priority #14).
Standards
• Develop guidelines for archives on how to judge when to use
automated transfer of analog audio to digital preservation copies.
This is a complex risk-assessment task. Those doing automated
transfers need guidelines and sources of expertise (Priority #4).
• Develop a collation of the existing relevant audio engineering
standards from organizations such as AES, ARSC, IASA, and
NARAS. Roundtable members recommended reviewing all inter-
national standards (Priority #9).
Developing Core Competencies in

Audio Preservation Engineering
(Priority #1; see related additional #1 item on page 13, Web site, under
"Reference Materials")
Roundtable members expressed concern that in some archives, frag-
ile audio recordings are being handled, played, and transferred for
digital preservation by staff who have limited experience working
with audio recordings or little knowledge about the sonic character-
istics and weaknesses of various audio formats. The group strongly
recommended that audio preservation transfers be done by trained
and experienced audio engineers.
Participants identified a number of core competencies that an
audio preservation engineer should have. Among other things, these
would include the ability to
• identify the composition of audio tape and audio discs
• clean and resplice damaged splices on analog audio tape
• determine the correct stylus type for faithful playback of audio
discs
Until recently, there have been few university programs to train

audio preservation engineers. Roundtable participants agreed that
audio preservation engineers should be trained in postgraduate
audio engineering courses that include a practicum or laboratory
component. They recommended that coursework be coupled with
an apprenticeship with a skilled audio engineer experienced in au-
dio preservation. “We should err toward professionalizing music
archiving and music conservation,” said one participant. “If we can
just get these programs into universities, this would be genuine
progress.” Ideally, such coursework would include instruction in the

following:
• the history of various recording media that have been used
through the years.
• hands-on exposure to recording media of past and current
generations
• recording media science and preservation
• the nature of computer data files, metadata, data integrity, data
management systems, information retrieval systems, and data
migration
• how to recognize failure modes of various media and the proper
techniques to mitigate those failures
• proper storage environments for various recording media
• the proper functioning of equipment and techniques for equip-
ment repair, maintenance, and testing
• environmental hazards of handling various materials
• cataloging issues that pertain to audiovisual material
• curatorial issues that pertain to audiovisual material
• curatorial issues that relate to audio and collections (e.g., how au-
diovisual materials might be integrated into a large paper archive)
• intellectual property issues that pertain to audiovisual materials
• basic business (“Business 101”)
• the ethics of preservation
Conclusion
As new audio technologies evolve and supplant older ones, we
risk losing decades of spoken-word and musical recordings that
are valuable not only as commercial products but also as cultural
touchstones that document who we are, what we feel, and how we
experience our world. At present, there are both audio engineers and
equipment capable of transferring even the oldest analog recordings
safely to digital. But this will not be true for long. As one roundtable
participant noted, “The pool of expertise is shrinking every day.” If
key technical knowledge is not passed along soon, thousands of re-
cordings may not be accessible to America’s listeners 20 or 30 years
from now.
Roundtable members agreed that sharing their expertise with
colleagues in audio archiving and audio engineering, both now and
in the future, is of vital importance. Participants noted that some
of the leading associations in the audio field—such as AES, ARSC,
IASA, and NARAS—have unilateral efforts afoot that may lead to
some progress in developing standards for digital preservation. They
agreed that more communication across these groups—through the
Web and group meetings—should be encouraged to facilitate the
sharing of information and recommendations.
17
PART TWO
Recommended Procedures for Transferring

Analog Audio Tape and Analog Audio Disc for
Digital Output, with Participant Commentary
The following is an edited, expanded version of the proposed work-

flow documents created by Larry Appelbaum and Peter Alyea before
the roundtable meeting. It sets forth the transfer practices agreed on
by roundtable participants and incorporates comments and annota-
tions made by individual participants during the online discussion
period after the meeting. The roundtable meeting was held in Janu-
ary 2004 and the ensuing online discussion continued until April 1,
2004.
Many of the comments made during the online discussion were
highly technical, delving into areas of dissent and controversy as
well as agreement. While this document does not incorporate every
comment made online, it does include most of them. The goal of this
document is to stimulate further debate and to share roundtable par-
ticipants’ expertise with the broader community.
ANALOG AUDIO TAPES
1. Pretransfer issues
1.1. Inspecting, preparing, and cleaning the
source materials
1.1.1. Determining the composition (polyester [e.g., Mylar],
acetate, paper) and the thickness
Optimal practice: Inspect the tape visually; this is usually adequate.
Consider nondestructive testing methods. Tape boxes and labels can
aid identification but are not always reliable. The optimal inspection
technique is nonintrusive; however, the use of destructive techniques
can sometimes be justified.
Occasionally, a single tape reel held in an archive or a collec-
tion may hold tapes of differing compositions. These tapes may be
spliced or simply wound together. Such reels ought to be set aside
and examined individually.
Thickness is important because it can help determine how a tape
responds to stress and how it should be handled. In addition, tape
thickness is an indication of tape length, which may be helpful in
predicting program length.
Recommendation: Produce a flowchart or logic tool to identify
the composition of the tape.
1.1.2. Methods or techniques used to address specific

physical problems or conditions
1.1.2.1. Brittleness
Brittleness affects acetate and paper tape.
Optimal practice: Visually inspect the tape, then slowly wind
and play it. If a scrap piece is available, test it by bending. Identify
brittleness to implement appropriate handling techniques.
1.1.2.2. Splices (loose, broken [i.e., separated splices],

or bleeding)
Splicing is one of the biggest problems associated with audio tape
preservation.
Optimal practice: Repair all damaged splices before beginning
transfer. Remove and repair bad splices if the splices pose a physical
risk to the media or compromise sonic quality. Clean with naphtha-
based lighter fluid or isopropyl alcohol (alcohol should not be used
on acetate tape) and resplice.
Once the splice has been repaired, remove the tape from any
consumer or non–preservation-quality plastic reel and rewind it onto
a clean, standard, slotless NAB hub and metal reels.
Core competency: The ability to remove adhesive from old
splices and to resplice tape. It is assumed that transfer engineers who
clean tapes also possess basic tape-handling skills.
Recommendation: Articulate the exact steps for repairing and
cleaning tape in a workflow document.
1.1.2.3. Miscellaneous tape issues

Overarching recommendation: Store tapes that cannot be trans-
ferred because of limitations in current technology until appropriate
treatment procedures become available.
1.1.2.3.1. Cupping
Cupping is a deformation in which the tape, when viewed end-on,
appears curled instead of flat. Cupping is most common in acetate
tape that has been stored in damp conditions.
Optimal practice: Let the tape sit as a B-wind for three to six
months if possible. If that amount of time is not available, the tape
may still benefit from a shorter period in the B-wind configuration.
If a dub must be made immediately, either (1) adjust the tension of
the playback machine or (2) use pressure pads. A tape that is severely
cupped could expand and come off the reel. For this reason, it is im-
portant to wind slowly and to monitor the take-up wind.
A B-wind involves packing the tape with the oxide on the out-
side and the backing on the inside. (Other wind descriptions that
preservationists should be aware of are A-wind, flat wind, library
wind, fast wind, tail-in wind, and tail-out wind.)
1.1.2.3.2. Edge wear/edge damage

Optimal practice: Use a narrower track head for playback. Be aware,
however, that this practice may sacrifice some signal-to-noise ratio
and fidelity.2
1.1.2.3.3. Leader
There are two types of leader: plastic and paper. Plastic leaders can
accumulate electrostatic charges that, if discharged during playback,
could disrupt the signal.
Lack of consensus: Sprays are available to help remove elec-
trostatic charges. Participants disagreed on whether such spraying
could contaminate the tape. One engineer noted that to his knowl-
edge, use of such sprays was not an accepted practice. He further
stated that he was unaware of any research confirming their effects.
Thus, the value of sprays cannot be supported or refuted at this
point.
Optimal practice: When repairing splices as part of routine con-
servation activity, replace plastic leaders with paper leaders. Proper
control of room humidity can also reduce electrostatic buildup.
1.1.2.3.4. Loss of oxide

Blocking. Blocking occurs when the oxide comes off the tape in
strips. Such tapes should not be played or wound. At present, there
is no remedy for blocking. Future research may result in techniques
for preventing or remedying this problem.
2 For more information on problems faced when playing back open reel
tapes, see D. Michael Shields, Dennis D. Rooney, and Seth B. Winner. 2003.
Considerations in the Playback of Archival Analog Magnetic Recordings with
Wide Recorded Tracks. ARSC Journal, 34(1): 48–53.
Shedding. Some tapes shed as they degrade because of aging. Strict

environmental controls can help minimize the rate of degradation;
little else can be done to prevent it. Shedding differs from a condition
sometimes referred to as sticky shed, which is discussed in section
1.1.3.3.
Optimal practice: Remove loose oxide from the tape and tape
path whenever shedding interferes with optimal playback. Remove
heavily shedding tape with Pellon cleaning tape (see section 1.1.3.1)
before audio transfer. In addition, clean the machine transport as of-
ten as necessary.
Preventive measures for blocking and shedding include proper
storage and cleaning.
Store tapes that cannot currently be transferred because of tech-
nical limitations until appropriate treatment measures are available.
1.1.2.3.5. Wind types: scatter/smooth, tension

Optimal practice: Do not put loosely wound tape under tension, and
do not play it back in a loose wind on any servo-motor transport;
hand winding is preferred for loose winds. Wind the tape onto a
slotless NAB hub and metal reel. Experiment with different wind-
ing speeds and transports. To promote longevity of heads, it may be
preferable to bypass them when winding.
1.1.3. Methods for removing or mitigating surface problems
1.1.3.1. Topical debris

Optimal practice: Depending on the amount of debris, address the
pack first by vacuuming it before winding. Consider winding against
Pellon cleaning tape. When using Pellon cleaning tape, clean both
sides of original magnetic tape, i.e., the backing as well as the oxide.
Feed the Pellon strip slowly and incrementally in order to present a
constantly clean surface and to prevent accumulation of debris on a
fixed pad of Pellon.
1.1.3.2. Mold
Optimal practice: Vacuum with a HEPA filter. Follow with Pellon
cleaning on both sides of tape—backing and oxide.
Note: This procedure is a potential health hazard, and appropri-
ate protection is advised. Cleaning should be done in an environ-
ment where it will not place other media at risk for contamination.
1.1.3.3. Stickiness
Two distinct conditions may cause tapes to become sticky and emit
a telltale squealing noise during playback. One condition is sticky
shed, also known as binder breakdown. It affects polyester tape and is
an indication of binder hydrolysis. The second is lubricant loss, which
primarily affects acetate tapes.
The most common practice for making sticky polyester tapes
playable is extended baking at low heat in a scientific or convection
oven. Other treatment methods include using environmental cham-
bers and desiccants. Alternative methods should be explored.
Lubricant loss in acetate tapes should be treated through a relu-

brication process. Acetate tapes should never be baked.
In both instances, treatment results may vary, depending on the
physical and chemical makeup of a specific brand and manufactur-
ing run of tape.
Further research: Research is needed on (1) alternatives to oven
baking for reversing hydrolysis in polyester tapes; (2) methods of
vacuum sealing polyester tapes that have been baked in order to
keep them from reabsorbing moisture; and (3) new methods for relu-
bricating acetate tapes suffering from lubricant loss.
1.1.3.4. Water damage

Optimal practice: If the tape is dry, vacuum with a HEPA filter to
remove debris, use Pellon in a slow wind, and replace the splices. If
the tape is still wet, consider a distilled-water rinse. Allow the tape
to dry, vacuum debris, use Pellon in a slow wind, and replace the
splices.
1.1.4. Choosing cleaning methods

For spot cleaning of old splices, a naphtha-based lighter fluid (such
as Ronsonol) or isopropyl alcohol is recommended. However, users
are advised to consult relevant Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
before employing these chemicals.
For overall cleaning to remove oxide shedding or other dry, loose
debris, dry cleaning using Pellon is recommended.
Optimal practice: Use judgment to determine whether tape deg-
radation is present and whether intervention is needed. Every tape
does not need to be cleaned before transfer.
1.2. Configuring and calibrating playback equipment

1.2.1. Determining playback speed
Optimal practice: Start by playing the tape at 7.5 inches per second.
Listen carefully. If possible, have machines that can play back at all
known speeds and head configurations that may be encountered,
plus variable pitch control. Note all speed variations as documenta-
tion to accompany the digital preservation copy.
On the basis of their knowledge of program content, music or
subject specialists may be able to help identify speed. Listening (or
inspecting with test equipment) for low-level power-line hum at 50
to 60 cycles per second may help determine speed. This is because
50 and 60 cycles per second are the standard frequencies at which
electrical current alternates (depending on which part of the world
you are in). However, there may be slight fluctuations to this, i.e.,
rates may fall below 50 or exceed 60. Additionally, pitch may vary
throughout the recording. (This is particularly true of field record-
ings.)
1.2.2. Modifying playback technique to maximize quality

transfer of problematic sources
Adjust for azimuth. To maximize the transfer quality of the original
tape, align azimuth to that of the original tape. Use an oscilloscope
to adjust azimuth for optimal high frequency and phase coherence,
where applicable. Over time, aligning azimuth to various source
tapes may cause tape head surfaces to wear unevenly and become
deformed, with a resultant loss in fidelity. This wear will require
regular relapping of tape heads.
If the tape being copied is second or third generation, it can be
difficult to optimize for azimuth correction. The azimuth alignment
of each recording deck used to make each generational copy could
differ, thus preventing optimal reproduction because cancellations
will take place.
1.2.3. Monitoring aurally and with test equipment for

anomalies
Both the experienced, trained human ear and carefully calibrated
testing equipment should be used to monitor recorded-sound
transfers.
Tools are available to assist in distinguishing transient, event-
based anomalies (e.g., clicks and pops) from global anomalies that
may affect the entire tape (e.g., bandwidth and dynamic-range
limitations). Sources of anomalies in recordings include the original
recording itself, degradation of the tape, playback-transport error,
and signal-path error. Correctly identifying the source of recording
anomalies is imperative for preservation of the recorded content.
1.2.4. Setting level gain throughout signal chain with or

without tones
There is no industry-wide agreement on level setting. When a digital
preservation copy is being created, level setting is dependent on the
bit depth of the linear PCM recording. Higher bit depths provide
greater dynamic range. Use peak-level metering, not volume-unit
metering, when available.
1.2.5. Setting record level

Optimal practice: Use reference-set alignment tones provided at the
beginning of the source tape if they are available. If the source tape
has no reference tones, use an industry-accepted frequency-align-
ment tape as a baseline reference in setting playback levels.3 Have on
hand a repertoire of alignment tapes to accommodate various flux
densities.
Using a standard alignment tape to set playback level may oc-
casionally result in very high noise in the case of a low-level source
tape (e.g., some amateur recordings). It could also result in clipping
3 Frequency-alignment tapes may be purchased from Magnetic Reference

Laboratory on the Web at http://home.flash.net/~mrltapes/ or by phone at 650-
965-8187. Tapes may also be purchased from JRF Magnetics on the Web at www.
JRFmagnetics.com or by phone at 973-579-5773.
the playback amp or in the subsequent analog chain in the case of

an inordinately high-level source tape (e.g., early Atlantic Recording
Studios rhythm and blues recordings).
For these reasons, setting the recording level for material without
reference tones requires the optimization of levels throughout the
analog signal chain for maximum signal-to-noise ratio without risk
of overload or clipping (overloading) the signal. The engineer must
determine the average level of the source tape and adjust gain stages
appropriately, while observing the principles of unity gain. The opti-
mal recording level for digitization is as close to digital zero as pos-
sible, without clipping.
2. Transfer
2.1. Guidelines or methods for setting playback curves
Most tapes conform to standard playback curves, either NAB or
CCIR. The CCIR curve is typical in Europe, and the NAB curve is
used in the Americas. The playback-machine curve should match the
source.
To determine the proper playback curve, the engineer should
take note of documentation included on the tape or with the tape box
and use EQ-alignment reference tones provided at the beginning of
the tape.
If there are no EQ reference tones on the tape, the engineer
should mount a standard alignment tape conforming to the pre-
sumed general EQ curve and align the playback deck’s EQ to that
tape. The source tape should then be mounted, and the azimuth
should be adjusted to match that tape. Determining the proper play-
back curve of a tape with no documentation or tones can be difficult.
If the EQ tones are included on the source tape, the playback
equalization should be set to play back the tones as nearly as possi-
ble to the same level. If there is a large discrepancy in this result, the
operator should suspect that the overall EQ curve is different from
that in the player. Switching to another type of EQ curve may allow
the tones to be adjusted to the same level.
2.2. Guidelines or methods for making

slate announcements
Slate announcements are considered metadata. It is generally be-
lieved that slate announcements are not needed if it is possible to
embed metadata within digital preservation copies. The need for
proper identification and labeling cannot be overstated, and the
methods for retaining metadata will depend on destination media.
Disagreement: One engineer cautioned that he did not think
enough discussion had occurred during the roundtable to regard
the substitution of embedded metadata for slate announcements as
an optimal practice. When slate announcements are used, he sug-
gested, they should be well separated from the audio content being
preserved.
2.3. Playing the source tape

See 1.2.1 through 1.2.5.
2.4. Monitoring aurally and with test equipment for

anomalies
Experienced listening and proper test equipment can confirm
anomalies.
2.5. Monitoring physical playback mechanism

Participants concurred that playback and recording mechanisms
should be monitored throughout the transfer process.
2.6. Take-up reel wind type (A/B wind, heads out,

tails out)
Optimal practice: When the recording goes in only one direction,
store the tape tails out. When the recording goes in two directions,
store it with side-A heads out. (This also results in a tighter wind.)
Experiment with A/B wind only when there is poor packing of tape
for long-term storage. Some European tapes are stored using a re-
verse wind.
3. Post-Transfer Quality Control

3.1. Methods or techniques for real-time
spot-checking
Participants suggested creation and use of a “transfer confidence
index” to assist the engineer in designating the quality of the trans-
fer in the metadata file. A “transfer confidence index,” refers to an
assessment of the quality of the transfer to guide future use of the
transfer and disposition of the original media (though it is very rare-
ly recommended that original materials be disposed of).
3.1.1. Aural monitoring

Monitoring systems should achieve accurate reproduction to allow
for proper evaluation of quality. They should be capable of accurate-
ly monitoring the highest-resolution source employed in the preser-
vation signal chain. In some cases this will be the playback medium;
in others, it is equipment farther downstream in the signal chain.
Recommendation: One engineer suggested that one characteris-
tic of the monitoring system (including the room itself) should be a
flat frequency response up to 20 kHz in the listening position.
3.1.2. Peak/average level meter

Optimal practice: Use peak metering for all level measurements.
Disagreement: Participants failed to reach a consensus on how
best to set levels in a disc with high-amplitude transients—namely,
they wondered whether “overs” are ever acceptable. One view holds
that they are not. Some believe that decisions concerning whether it
is easier to remove these with software filtering or to raise low-level
signals must be made in conjunction with the rest of the music and
available processing capabilities.
3.1.3. Waveform display (amplitude over time)

Use a waveform display to confirm what you hear. Predigitization
test equipment should not be in the recording chain but parallel to it.
Postdigitization tools are acceptable.
The following instruments may be useful in the post-transfer
listening suite; in this case, their purpose should be to confirm an
anomaly that has already been noted in the documentation accom-
panying the archived program. These instruments are also recom-
mended for inclusion in the pretransfer suite to identify problems
such as azimuth drift, dropouts, and unusual frequency-response
characteristics. The transfer technician should note such problems in
the metadata.
3.1.4. X-Y scope

The X-Y scope is essential for setting azimuth in stereo, 2T mono, or
multitrack pairs. It is also useful for analyzing phase.
3.1.5. Correlation (phase) meter

This tool can be used in analyzing two different signal sources as in
stereo, two-track, or multitrack pairs.
3.1.6. Frequency analyzer

A frequency analyzer can be useful in identifying and confirming the
frequency information of a recording. It can help locate and identify
components of hums or other repetitive anomalies.
3.1.7. Spectrum analyzer

A spectrum analyzer can be useful in identifying and confirming
the spectral-frequency information of a recording. It can locate and
identify components of hums or other repetitive anomalies (e.g.,
turntable rumble) that may be present in the source recording or the
playback chain.
3.2. Methods or techniques for automated checking

Advanced error detection: Participants suggested that a software-
based system could be employed as an aid for error detection in files
and that a combination hardware/software solution may be used to
flag errors in physical digital media. For quality-control purposes,
data integrity should be checked at some point after the transfer is
completed.
ANALOG AUDIO DISCS AND CYLINDERS
4. Pretransfer issues
4.1. Inspecting, preparing, and cleaning the
source materials
4.1.1. Determining the composition (shellac, lacquer/
acetate, aluminum, vinyl, metal parts)
Identify disc composition before cleaning or outsourcing for transfer
in order to specify cleaning methods and to anticipate problems. Ex-
perienced engineers can readily identify disc composition.
Recommendation: Research on the various formulations of shel-
lac discs is needed. Advanced materials science could be helpful in
this area.
4.1.2. Methods or techniques used to address

specific physical problems
4.1.2.1. Physical damage (broken or missing pieces)

Optimal practice: If a glass or shellac disc is broken, reconstruction
can be attempted. If a broken disc cannot be satisfactorily restored
because of deformations or missing shards, keep all the pieces for
potential future signal-reconstruction techniques. Consider special
housing for badly broken discs.
4.1.2.2. Broken substrate

Some discs can be played in spite of broken substrate.
4.1.2.3. Loss of lacquer (separated lacquer)

Save all pieces for possible future signal-reconstruction methods.
4.1.2.4. Cracks and scratches

Depending on severity, play through them and make notes for meta-
data.
4.1.2.5. Warps
Some warped discs can be played at a much lower speed than origi-
nally intended; in other cases, additional tracking force can be ap-
plied. The deciding factor is the severity of the warping. Take note
of speed for metadata and note if any EQ is applied. Do not apply
playback EQ curves during low-speed transfers.
A vacuum turntable works with vinyl but not shellac. It is also
an expensive, highly specialized piece of equipment.
4.1.2.6. Groove abnormalities (no lead-in groove)

If the disc has no lead-in groove, record the sound of the stylus drop-
ping. Keep trying until you get as much information or signal as pos-
sible. Document all abnormalities.
4.1.2.7. Shallow grooves

Experiment with styli of different sizes and shapes. Some standard
groove geometries can be inferred from the record label, brand, or
type. For example, Edison Diamond Discs are typically very uniform
and are ordinarily played with the same shape and size stylus, but
Pathé Sapphire Discs from the same era require a different-size sty-
lus. Yet another size is used for pre-stereo microgroove records, and
so on. Try a commonly recommended stylus first. If there are prob-
lems with noise or distortion, apply an array of alternate choices.
4.1.2.8. Nonconcentric grooves

Nonconcentric grooves are a manufacturing-related problem that
causes wow. No post-transfer wow-removal tool is currently avail-
able.
4.1.2.9. Hole punched off-center

This problem is similar to nonconcentric grooves. To correct both
problems, mount the record on a turntable with a smaller-than-nor-
mal spindle to allow some adjustment of the centering. Alternatively,
use a turntable with an adjustable spindle. Centering of the record
can be done visually to a high degree of accuracy.
4.1.2.10. Worn grooves

Optimal practice: Careful stylus selection and careful cleaning are
essential. If dictated by the condition of the disc, make multiple dubs
and listen to them to determine the best recording.
4.1.3. Methods for removing or mitigating surface problems

such as topical debris, exudation, and presence of oils or
fingerprints
Optimal practice: When transferring an audio program from an ana-
log disc, clean the disc first, unless cleaning will damage the media.
Alcohol should not be used to clean any disc records except Edison
Diamond Discs and metal parts.
When cleaning, start dry: Use dusting and vacuuming. Then, in
descending order, try antistatic brushing, deionized water, “pure”
(i.e., fragrance- and additive-free) liquid soap, and scrubbing. Me-
chanical disc washers are also commercially available.
Disagreement: Some engineers advocate using a stylus as a
cleaning tool. This method can work with shellac records but can
subject the disc to degradation. Special caution is needed when using
a stylus for vinyl records if they have not been properly cleaned first.
Some engineers believe that it is advisable to use a stylus only to
clean metal parts. All agreed that it is best to remove as much debris
as possible before passing a stylus through the grooves.
4.1.4. Choosing cleaning solutions

Cleaning solutions must not leave residue or cause damage. Re-
search and development must verify a solution as safe before use.
Disc recordings that cannot currently be transferred because of
technical limitations should be stored until appropriate treatment is

available.
4.2. Configuring and calibrating playback equipment

4.2.1. Choosing a stylus
Stylus choice is one of the most important factors in transferring au-
dio from disc. Most audio preservation engineers choose the proper
stylus through a combination of experience, educated guesswork,
and expert listening. Participants noted that a stereo lab-microscope
and a good groove microscope with a reticle calibrated in 1-mil in-
crements can reveal a great deal about groove condition and stylus
requirement. The microscope does not, however, replace the role of
expert listening in finalizing the choice of stylus.
Disagreement: Can a stylus be selected on a purely scientific ba-
sis or is it a subjective decision that is based on expert listening? Or
are both required? What methodology can be developed for blend-
ing the two approaches? Time pressures or lack of equipment for
examination and analysis of the groove may make it necessary for an
expert to rely on a subjective method. But, as one engineer offered,
one “can envision a procedure where there is some preparatory vi-
sual groove/stylus matching, using a microscope. By building up the
needle profiles and storing them as data files, certain images could
be taken of the disc and then correlated with the stylus types. This
gives an approximate result and a range of styli to be considered.”
4.2.2. Determining playback speed

While approximately 78 rpm was the predominant speed of early
discs, there was no standard disc speed until late in the 78-rpm era.
Many of the same guidelines discussed under tape transfer apply
to disc transfers. Careful listening is essential. Use a variable speed
turntable. Note disc speed and variations as documentation to ac-
company the digital preservation copy. On the basis of their knowl-
edge of program content, music or subject specialists may be able to
help identify speed.
Recommendation: Compile and document available research to
provide guidelines for determining playback speed.
4.2.3. Setting tone arm tracking force and height

Tracking force, also called stylus force, is the static force between a
stationary record and the stylus tip, in the playing position. With tra-
ditional, stylus-based playback technology, the optimal adjustment
of tracking force is a trade-off between record wear and dependable
tracking and tracing of the groove. To minimize record wear, use
the lowest tracking force that reliably maintains continuous contact
between the stylus tip and the groove, as indicated by a minimum of
audible distortion in the extracted audio signal.
Phonograph-cartridge manufacturers usually recommend a
range of tracking-force values over which a given cartridge may be
expected to perform within its rated specifications. However, car-
tridges are typically characterized for playback of stereo LPs and

45-rpm records that are in good physical condition, and the tracking-
force values depend on equipment properties such as tonearm mass
and damping.
For any turntable setup, the minimum practical value of tracking
force is influenced by the prevailing conditions of groove-modula-
tion level, record warp, and the motional dynamics of the overall
pickup-and-tonearm system.
When using a stereo phonograph cartridge to play vertical-cut
discs, 78s, or other pre-microgroove record formats, the transfer en-
gineer should be alert for tracing or tracking problems, displayed as
audible distortion. As the tracking force is reduced, the stylus even-
tually begins to lose contact with the groove. The signal becomes
“fuzzy,” then gradually more “buzzy,” until the stylus ultimately
fails to track the groove (it “skips”). Heavily modulated, warped, or
locally “bumpy” records may require increased values of tracking
force to improve tracking and extract a cleaner signal.
Modern, high-compliance phonograph cartridges are typically
rated for a maximum tracking force of only a few grams. If loaded
at significantly higher forces, the stylus-suspension system in many
cartridges will “bottom out,” making the cartridge inoperative when
the stylus cantilever recedes into or strikes the cartridge housing.
One workaround for this limitation, when the goal is to track warped
or “bumpy” records, is to increase the stiffness of the stylus-suspen-
sion elastomer in the stylus assembly. Another approach is to mount
the cartridge in a “floating” (i.e., pivoted and spring-loaded) head-
shell, to reduce the effective mass of the pickup assembly.
It is important to set the tracking force high enough to avoid
mistracking—a condition in which the stylus leaves the groove and
may then return, slamming into the record surface. Mistracking can
seriously damage records made of softer materials, such as vinyl,
lacquer, or wax.
4.2.4. Setting antiskate compensation

Pivoted tonearms (as compared with linear-tracking or radial-track-
ing arms) experience a phenomenon called skating when playing a
disc record. This is caused by the bend, or dogleg, that is designed
into the tonearm. The bend is there to reduce the incidence of lateral
tracking angle error, which is a natural consequence of using a single
lateral pivot point in the tonearm. The skating force causes the stylus
to bear with greater force on the inner groove wall (stereo left chan-
nel) than it does on the outer groove wall (stereo right channel). This
can result in more distortion in the right channel when playing ste-
reo records. The antiskating compensation has been added to mod-
ern turntables to apply an outward torque to the tonearm, which
counteracts the skating force, resulting in nearly even tracking forces
on both the inner and outer groove walls. Test records are available
for use in adjusting the antiskate compensation. Alternatively, as a
temporary corrective procedure, the technician can adjust the com-
pensator to reduce groove sticking or skipping.
Some believe that this issue primarily involves stereo record-

ings. However, the online discussion revealed that physical problems
caused by not riding in the center of the groove are the same for all
records. To many, standard preservation dictates that both groove
walls of a mono recording be preserved if transferred using a ste-
reo cartridge; the right channel from a mono recording cannot be
ignored. A bias toward vinyl stereo recordings might be perceived
even in the mention of an S-shaped tone arm. LC engineers stated
that they use straight tonearms for most of their nonvinyl transfers.
4.2.5. Monitoring aurally and with test equipment for

anomalies
See section 1.2.3.
4.2.6. Setting level gain throughout signal chain

See section 1.2.4.
4.2.7. Setting record level

See sections 1.2.5 and 3.1.2.
5. Transfer
5.1. Methods or techniques for setting
playback EQ curves
If the type of recording EQ curve for a disc recording is not known
or cannot be assumed with a high degree of assurance, or if no re-
cording EQ was used (as with the early acoustic recordings), it is
generally recommended that the disc be transferred “flat” with no
playback EQ curve compensation. If necessary, these recordings
can be adjusted post-transfer. The EQ used should be noted in the
documentation. Not all phono preamplifiers allow for the EQ to be
switched off, and switching off the EQ is not easy to do with most
phono preamps. The Recording Industry Association of America
(RIAA) playback curve is often designed into the constant-velocity
to constant-amplitude compensation that is intended to be used with
magnetic (dynamic) phono cartridges. If one uses a flat amplifier in-
stead of the RIAA magnetic preamp circuit, the result is a very tinny
sound from a magnetic cartridge. Although this can be useful for
preservation, it is not recommended for standard playback. A sepa-
rate preamp velocity-compensation equalizer is required to convert
the magnetic cartridge response to constant amplitude that does not
have RIAA compensation added as well. This circuit is rarely found
in any commercial preamps.
5.2. Methods or techniques for recording test tones

There is no need to record a series of test tones onto the digital pres-
ervation copy unless those tones are part of the original program
on the source tape. Digital recording is inherently flat in frequency
response at all signal levels, and no digital EQ is used, so there is no

purpose served by the inclusion of test tones.
5.3. Methods or techniques for making slate

announcements
See section 2.2.
5.4. Starting the recording device

Start the recording device first, and then start the playback.
5.5. Playing the disc

The group did not want to discuss playing discs wet versus dry.
Disagreement/Further research: One engineer who opposed
playing discs wet stated by e-mail, “All commercially made records
are designed to perform perfectly well when played back in their dry
condition. The wetting of the surface is more likely to introduce un-
desired artifacts such as a change in the damping of the playback sty-
lus cantilever, which will result in an improper frequency response.
Furthermore, the wetting can trap dirt on both the record and inside
the playback cartridge. I do not recommend wet playback under any
circumstances, with the possible exception of playing non-commer-
cially made aluminum disc records.”
In contrast, an engineer who has had success with wet-disc
transfers stated, “I am not convinced nor have I seen any evidence
that wet playing of commercially made shellac 78-rpm discs or
lacquer-coated discs introduces more unwanted artifacts than it
removes. Personally, I have had success in wet transfer of acetate-
coated discs and shellac 78s, resulting in a lessening of surface noise.
I feel this is a subject in need of more research.”
5.6. Monitoring aurally and with test equipment for

anomalies
See section 2.4.
5.7. Monitoring physical playback mechanism

Roundtable members agreed that ideally, all transfer equipment and
processes should be monitored from beginning to end.
6. Post-Transfer Quality Control

Participants suggested use of a “confidence index” to assist engi-
neers in designating the quality of the transfer in the metadata file.
6.1. Methods or techniques for real-time spot-

checking
In addition to aurally monitoring, one should use a peak/average
level meter and waveform display (amplitude over time). Software
tools that incorporate an X-Y scope, correlation (phase) meter, fre-
quency analyzer, and spectrum analyzer should also be used.
6.2. Automated checking

Advanced error detection: See section 3.2.
7. Other Issues
7.1. Choosing sampling rate and bit depth
Recommendation from George Massenburg: 96 kHz, 24 bit, linear
PCM files are the minimum standard for digital audio preservation
files.
Reasoning: The emerging standard is the DVD, on which audio
is 96 kHz. Storage space is becoming cheaper all the time. IASA has
embraced 96 kHz as its specification, and we want to be interoper-
able with Europe. At least one roundtable member recommended
sampling at 88.2kHz in order to best produce a 44.1kHz file. It was
pointed out that good digital converters can now down sample 96
kHz to 44.1 kHz much better than they used to, with negligible loss
of audio fidelity. And the point was made that 44.1 kHz would be
used only for access copies, not for preservation copies. A minuscule
loss of audio quality in such copies would be acceptable to most at-
tending the roundtable.
Although there was some discussion that preservation of lower-
fidelity media (e.g., oral histories on cassette) might not currently
benefit from 96kHz/24 bit, 96kHz/24 bit is nevertheless recom-
mended for all media and all content whenever possible. One cannot
foresee how the transferred audio may eventually be repurposed
and how future restoration technologies might be used.
One engineer noted that as of early 2004, the AES had a proposal
on the table recommending setting a new digital preservation stan-
dard at 192 kHz/24 bits.
7.2. Compromises
To accommodate limited budgets or other resources, preservation
reformatting often involves compromises between best practices and
acceptable results. Roundtable participants suggested that guidelines
be created to assist in making decisions that result in compromises to
the quality of the product.
• Define and spell out compromises and trade-offs.
• Provide guidance to all institutions, regardless of size and budget,
on how to deal with any needed compromises between best prac-
tices and acceptable results.
• Store recorded media that cannot currently be transferred because

of technical limitations until appropriate treatment is available.
• Develop and define new standards for the archival community.
• Develop guidelines on how to make judgment calls.
8. General comments from the listserv discussion

Recommendations: Create the following three resource documents:
1. a list of suggested equipment that should be available to perform
routine digital audio archiving tasks at a 96 kHz/24 bits standard;
2. “Sources of Equipment and Supplies for Audio Archives” (this
document should be updated regularly); and
3. advice for small archiving institutions on how to obtain grants
and other funds for digital preservation.
34
APPENDIX 1
Suggested Road Map for Best Practices

Document for Analog-to-Digital Conversion
January 30, 2004
George Massenburg
George Massenburg, a recording engineer and producer, and AES

representative to the NRPB, presented this document to the partici-
pants on the second day of their meeting. Its purpose was to facili-
tate conversation about analog-to-digital conversion. The document
sparked lively debate about such issues as the preferred sampling
rate (e.g., for reformatting of audiocassettes) and evaluation criteria.
Participants subsequently recommended that a separate meeting be
focused solely on the topic of conversion. Mr. Massenburg’s docu-
ment is produced here as a record of the meeting.
Objective: To capture complex analog signals with as much trans-

parency to the original as practical.
1. Converter hardware criteria

1.1 Technical evaluation issues
1.1.1 Bit depth

Recommend: 24 bit
1.1.2 Sample rate

Recommend: 96 kHz or better
1.1.3 Linearity
1.1.4 Stability of clock reference (perhaps external)

Recommend: 100ps or better RMS jitter
1.1.5 Type and quality of anti-aliasing filter (mandate optimizing

brick wall filter to track sample rate)
1.1.6 Noise
• level (weighting)
Recommend: 110dBFS A-weighted or better
• quality and nature of artifacts
Refer to FFT evaluation of performance, observe relatively few spikes
1.1.7 Dither (word-length reduction) methodology (if applicable

for 16-bit archives)
1.2 Perceptive evaluation issues and protocols
1.2.1 Establish testing protocols

• choose protocol, preferably utilizing two or more methods; from
simple (alternate D/A/D process with original analog source)
through multidimensional scaling, A-B-X, et al.
• establish conditions, including suggested standardized
monitoring and listening rooms
• establish trusted reference D/A converter to check complete
conversion process
• verify level calibration to ±0.05 dB max, in particular the A-B path
and the SOURCE (analog original) vs. D/A converter path
1.2.2 Establish source reference materials

• consider breadth of "quality" (especially low-quality end) of
different ingested materials
• establish categories
1.2.3 Isolate evaluation criteria

• perceived resolution: How well are very low-level sounds
articulated, especially low-level, high-frequency percussives and
transients?
• spectral balance: perceived "flatness" and "neutrality," lack of
harshness
• image stability: In stereo and multichannel, is the spatial image
laterally stable?
• organization of report database
2. Processing
2.1 Baseline procedures
2.1.1 Standardize subjective evaluation criteria
2.1.2 Develop conversion objectives

• budget contingencies
• estimate archive lifetime
• ongoing costs versus quality
• storage type efficiency/reliability/commonality
Observe that the costs of storage technologies are constantly shifting;

determine possible interchangeability issues with other archives.
2.1.3 Establish evaluator group constituency
2.1.4 Establish consistency criteria across evaluators/technicians
2.1.5 Establish technical specifications (e.g., dynamic range,

noise, flatness) for equipment and specifications for monitoring,
including monitor speakers and room acoustics
2.1.6 Establish criteria (suggested is a “transfer confidence

index”) to determine whether and when original materials must
be retained for future reconversion
2.2 Archival processing—transfer
2.2.1 Specify conversion parameters within latitude of

conversion options, if scaling of methodologies is determined to
be acceptable
Examples: Recommend limiting single-channel conversion and single-chan-
nel files for purely monophonic sources (requiring more expert evaluation);
recommend a deprecated bandwidth and resolution for limited-quality origi-
nals (for instance, old 78s and cylinders)
2.2.2 Determine the “transfer confidence” index

To what degree do I think that this conversion represents the best (i.e., maxi-
mally transparent, to a described, agreed-upon standard)?
2.2.3 Determine whether the specific original physical archive

element is so deteriorated that improvements in conversion
would provide little or no further advantage to existing archive
materials
2.2.4 Establish whether and when original materials can be

disposed of with confidence
• establish a redundancy protocol for a given digital archive and for
the migration of the digital archive media as well as the underlying
digital archive technology
• verify effectiveness of the integrity of the migration protocols in-
cluding background archive soft error checking
2.3 Ongoing review
2.3.1 Calibrate and do technical reevaluation of equipment
2.3.2 Review and oversee methodologies; track technology
2.3.3 Correlate the database’s "transfer confidence" index with

possible improvements in technology
37
APPENDIX 2
Meeting Participants
David Ackerman Chris Lacinak

Harvard University Vidipax
Peter Alyea George Massenburg

Library of Congress George Massenburg Labs
Larry Appelbaum Graham Newton

Library of Congress Graham Newton Audio Restoration
George Blood Pete Reiniger

George Blood Audio, L.P. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings
Greg Bogantz Dennis Rooney

RCA Records (retired) Freelance audio producer and engineer
Elizabeth Cohen Alan Stoker

Cohen Acoustical, Inc. Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum
Malcolm Davidson Seth Winner

Sony Music (retired) Seth B. Winner Sound Studios
Bill Klinger
Association for Recorded
Sound Collections

Capturing Analog Sound For Digital Preservation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Capturing Analog Sound For Digital Preservation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Capturing Analog Sound

for Digital Preservation:

Commissioned for and sponsored by the

Council on Library and Information Resources

The National Recording Preservation Board

Council on Library and Information Resources

Part One .......................................................................................................................... 1

Summary of Meeting Discussions ..................................................................... 4

Part Two ........................................................................................................................ 17

Recommended Procedures for Transferring Analog Audio Tape and

Appendix 1. Suggested Road Map for Best Practices Document

Appendix 2. Meeting Participants ........................................................................... 37

A companion report, dealing with key aspects of digital technologies, includ-

Abby Smith, Consultant

Samuel Brylawski, Consultant

As one considers the swift evolution and succession of recording

Addressing the Challenge of

SUMMARY OF MEETING DISCUSSIONS

This section summarizes the main technical points covered in the

Mitigating Deterioration of the Original Analog Carrier

• Cleaning the disc. When transferring an audio program from an

start with nondestructive, dry methods, such as gentle dusting,

• Choosing the stylus. The second step is to carefully determine the

• Choosing the playback speed. The next step is to determine the

• Identifying the tape. When preparing to transfer sound from an

• Handling splices. The most serious problem frequently encoun-

teriorating splices. One recommended cleaning method is to use

• Handling damage and deformation. Audio tapes may have suf-

needs to be done on alternative ways of alleviating hydrolysis for

• Cleaning. Tapes often require cleaning because of poor long-term

Obtaining an Accurate Transfer

with a vacuum pump to correct for warps. However, this vacuum

ence, the transfer engineer should listen to the recording. (Some

Roundtable participants could not agree as to whether it is ever

Best Practices for Digital Conversion/Considering

It should be noted, however, that the ﬁrst two recommendations

The Human Touch versus Automated Transfer

However, roundtable members were wary of any reformatting

Correct and sufﬁcient documentation is of paramount impor-

transfer needs; and technical manuals and key speciﬁcations for

to afford the care, upkeep, and digital migration associated with

Developing Core Competencies in

Until recently, there have been few university programs to train

progress.” Ideally, such coursework would include instruction in the

Recommended Procedures for Transferring

The following is an edited, expanded version of the proposed work-

ANALOG AUDIO TAPES

1.1.2. Methods or techniques used to address speciﬁc

1.1.2.2. Splices (loose, broken [i.e., separated splices],

1.1.2.3. Miscellaneous tape issues

1.1.2.3.2. Edge wear/edge damage

1.1.2.3.4. Loss of oxide

Shedding. Some tapes shed as they degrade because of aging. Strict

1.1.2.3.5. Wind types: scatter/smooth, tension

1.1.3. Methods for removing or mitigating surface problems

1.1.3.1. Topical debris

Lubricant loss in acetate tapes should be treated through a relu-

1.1.3.4. Water damage

1.1.4. Choosing cleaning methods

1.2. Conﬁguring and calibrating playback equipment

1.2.2. Modifying playback technique to maximize quality

1.2.3. Monitoring aurally and with test equipment for